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GS Paper: GS3

  • Pushing the wrong energy buttons

    Context

    For more than a decade, no major meeting between an Indian Prime Minister and a U.S. President has passed without a ritual reference to India’s promise made in 2008 to purchase American nuclear reactors.

    Issues in the nuclear deal

    • Construction of reactors: During president Trumps visit techno-commercial offer for the construction of six nuclear reactors in India at the earliest date was considered.
    • More expensive: Indeed, it has been clear for years that electricity from American reactors would be more expensive than competing sources of energy.
    • Prone to disasters: Moreover, nuclear reactors can undergo serious accidents, as shown by the 2011 Fukushima disaster.
    • No liability for accidents: Westinghouse has insisted on a prior assurance that India would not hold it responsible for the consequences of a nuclear disaster.
      • Which is effectively an admission that it is unable to guarantee the safety of its reactors.

    Who will be benefited from the deal?

    • The two beneficiaries: The main beneficiaries from India’s import of reactors would be Westinghouse and India’s atomic energy establishment that is struggling to retain its relevance given the rapid growth of renewables.
    • Political implications: Mr Trump has reasons to press for the sale too. His re-election campaign for the U.S. presidential election in November.
      • The election centrally involves the revival of U.S. manufacturing and he has been lobbied by several nuclear reactor vendors, including Westinghouse.
      • Finally, he also has a conflict-of-interest.

    Comparisons with the renewables

    • The total cost of the reactors: The six reactors being offered to India by Westinghouse would cost almost ₹6 lakh crore.
      • If India purchases these reactors, the economic burden will fall upon consumers and taxpayers.
    • Per unit price: In 2013, it was estimated that even after reducing these prices by 30%, to account for lower construction costs in India, the first year tariff for electricity would be about ₹25 per unit.
    • Comparison with solar energy: Recent solar energy bids in India are around ₹3 per unit.
      • Lazard, the Wall Street firm, estimates that wind and solar energy costs have declined by around 70% to 90% in just the last 10 years and may decline further in the future.

    Safety concern with nuclear energy

    • Long term cost in case of disasters: Nuclear power can also impose long-term costs.
      • Chernobyl accident: Large areas continue to be contaminated with radioactive materials from the 1986 Chernobyl accident and thousands of square kilometres remain closed off for human inhabitation.
      • Fukushima accident: Nearly a decade after the 2011 disaster, the Fukushima prefecture retains radioactive hotspots.
      • The cost of clean-up: the cost of clean-up has been variously estimated to range from $200-billion to over $600-billion.
    • No liability towards company: The Fukushima accident was partly caused by weaknesses in the General Electric company’s Mark I nuclear reactor design.
    • But that company paid nothing towards clean-up costs, or as compensation to the victims, due to an indemnity clause in Japanese law.
    • What are the provisions in Indian laws: Westinghouse wants a similar arrangement with India. Although the Indian liability law is heavily skewed towards manufacturers, it still does not completely indemnify them.
      • So nuclear vendors have tried to chip away at the law. Instead of resisting foreign suppliers, the Indian government has tacitly supported this process.

    India’s experience with nuclear energy

    • Starting with the Tarapur 1 and 2 reactors, in Maharashtra, India’s experiences with imported reactors have been poor.
    • The Kudankulam 1 and 2 reactors, in Tamil Nadu, the only ones to have been imported and commissioned in the last decade, have been repeatedly shut down.
    • Producing less than capacity: In 2018-19, these reactors produced just 32% and 38%, respectively, of the electricity they were designed to produce.
    • These difficulties are illustrative of the dismal history of India’s nuclear establishment.
    • Electricity generation stagnant at 3%: In spite of its tall claims, the fraction of electricity generated by nuclear power in India has remained stagnant at about 3% for decades.

    Conclusion

    The above factors indicate that the government should take the rational decision on the adoption of nuclear energy given its cost and the risk involved and the better alternative available in the form of solar and other renewable energies.

     

  • New forces in orbit

    Context

    As it looks at the growing role of the private sector and the effort by nations like the UAE and Luxembourg, Delhi needs to move quickly towards a new model for India’s space activity.

    Growing presence in the outer space

    • Outer space no longer a preserve of a few: When you think of outer space, you think of big powers like the United States, Russia and China.
      • You might also note the collective European effort under the European Space Agency as well as the impressive national space programmes of India and Japan.
      • Strategic or symbol of national pursuit: Space programmes have for long been viewed as either strategic or symbols of national prestige for big countries that are prepared to invest significant resources in the pursuit of a credible presence in outer space.
    • Two small countries challenging the narrative: Two small countries, the United Arab Emirates in the Gulf and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg in Europe have begun to demonstrate that the outer space need not be the playing ground for big powers alone.
      • Sceptics might think it is pretentious for the UAE with its native population of barely one million and Luxembourg with 600,000 people to think of a place for themselves in space.

    UAE’s presence in the space

    • Reminder for India: The interesting path these two countries have set for themselves in outer space is a reminder that Delhi needs to adapt to the rapidly changing dynamic in outer space.
    • Hope Mars Mission: That size is not a constraint is reflected in the UAE’s plan to launch its Mars mission, “Hope”, later this year in partnership with a range of organisations across the world — including three universities in the US.
      • Japan is scheduled to launch the UAE Mars probe this year.
      • India’s own ISRO is also working with the UAE on its Mars mission.
    • Last year, the first Emirati Astronaut, Hazza al-Mansouri spent more than a week in the US-Russian space station.
    • What are the reasons for the UAE’s space strategy? It is about cornering a slice of the rapidly growing commercial space industry — part of a major effort to diversify the UAE economy away from its reliance on hydrocarbons.

    How Luxembourg is increasing its presence in the outer space

    • Commercial space as a major opportunity: Over the years, Luxembourg moved away from its past reliance on the steel industry to become a centre of European banking and finance.
      • It is now looking at commercial space as a major opportunity.
    • Regulatory steps: Luxembourg has taken a number of regulatory steps to create a vibrant ecosystem for space companies ranging from satellite operations to future extraction of resources from asteroids and other space objects.
    • Expansion of the space sector: At the moment, the space sector accounts for nearly 2 per cent of Luxembourg’s GDP.
      • There are more than 50 companies and two public research organisations that are driving the expansion of space sector in Luxembourg.
      • It entered the space sector only in the middle of the last decade. It is also driven by the need for economic diversification.
    • Leveraging new ideas: UAE and Luxembourg do have a reputation for leveraging new ideas to transcend the limitations of their size in the world.
      • But their space adventure was not possible without the structural changes that are reshaping the global space activity.

    How space industry underwent a change over the years

    • Preserve of national programs: Through the second half of the 20th century, outer space was the sole preserve of national space programmes driven by government-funding, direction and management.
    • The emergence of the private sector: As military uses of space and prestige projects like Moon-landing emerged, major private sector entities already in the aviation industry like Boeing and Lockheed won space contracts in the US.
      • Collaboration with government: The Pentagon and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) told these companies what to do.
    • Expansion: The last decades of the 20th century saw significant expansion of satellite-based telecommunication, navigation, broadcasting and mapping, and lent a significant commercial dimension to the space sector.
      • As the digital revolution in the 21st century transformed the world economy, the commercial space sector has begun to grow in leaps and bounds.
      • The global space business is now estimated to be around $ 400 billion and is expected to easily rise to at least trillion dollars by 2040.
    • Rise of SpaceX: One example of the rise of private sector companies in the space sector is SpaceX run by the US entrepreneur Elon Musk.
      • Hired for a resupply mission for the space station, it now launches more rockets every year than NASA.
      • The entry of the private sector has begun to drive down the cost-per-launch through innovations such as reusable rockets.

    Scope of the expansion of the space industry

    • Decrease in launch cost and rise in ambition: As launch costs came down, the private sector has become more ambitious.
      • Internet through space: SpaceX plans to launch hundreds of satellites into the low-earth orbit to provide internet services. Amazon has plans to build a network of more than 3,000 satellites in the low-earth orbit.
      • Space tourism: Musk and Amazon’s Jeff Bezos have plans to develop space tourism and build human settlements on the Moon and on Mars.
      • Small private companies in the fray: It is not just big companies that are aiming for the Moon. Last year, a private company in Israel sent a lunar lander to the Moon. Although the lander crashed, much like India’s Vikram, the private sector has begun to do things that were once the monopoly of national agencies.

    India not in synch with the global changes

    • Not adapting to the change: India, however, is quite some distance away from adapting to the unfolding changes in the global space business.
      • In its early years, India’s space programme that was constrained by lack of resources found innovative ways of getting ahead in space.
    • Space sector dominated by the government: Although the ISRO encourages private sector participation in the national space programme, its model is still very 20th century — in terms of governmental domination.

    Conclusion

    As it looks at the growing role of the private sector and the effort by nations like the UAE and Luxembourg, India needs to move quickly towards a new model for India’s space activity. It needs a regulatory environment that encourages a more dynamic role for the private sector and promotes innovation.

  • Hazards of using fertilizers in Punjab

     

    Studies have pegged consumption of phosphatic fertilizers in Punjab at ten times higher than the national average. Thence media has consistently reported on cancer deaths in the Malwa region of Punjab.

    What are phosphatic fertilizers?

    • Phosphatic fertilizers are chemical substances that contain the nutrient phosphorus in an absorbable form (Phosphate anions) or that yield after conversion in the soil.
    • Phosphates help plants store energy, root well, flower and produce fruit.
    • The DAP or Diammonium Phosphate is the widely used phosphatic fertilizer in our country.
    • The total fertilizer consumption in India is 27 million tones, out of which about 20-25 per cent of phosphorous and nitrogen-based nutrients are dependent on imports from the United States, Jordan, Iran, Oman, China, Russia, Morocco, Israel, Lithuania and Egypt.

    Hazards of phosphatic fertilizers

    • Pursuant to the disquieting reports from the area, BARC in 2013 analysed fertilizer and soil samples from the Malwa region and discovered heavy concentration of Uranium.
    • According to the report, Uranium concentration in DAP was around 91.77 parts per million (ppm), which was way beyond the permissible limit.
    • It is also a fact that the fertiliser industry in India does not follow all procedures and protocols essential for decontamination of imported phosphatic rock associated with traces of Uranium.
    • There is yet another theory which does not support the fertiliser route for Uranium ingestion through food chain, but emphasises on the geogenic factors for the possible presence of Uranium in the groundwater samples.
    • Higher concentrations of Uranium are present in certain types of soils and rocks, especially granite.
    • All the three isotopes of Uranium (U-234, U-235, U-238) have a half-life period ranging from 0.25 million years to 4.47 billion years, indicating their relative stability.

    Increasing Uranium contamination

    • Presence of Uranium is widespread, and according to the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, its normal concentration in soil is between 300 microgram per kg (ug/kg) and 11.7 milligram per kg (mg/kg).
    • In the Indian context, contamination of Uranium in Punjab’s groundwater has been a problem since the early 2000s.
    • High levels of uranium found in the fertile Malwa region along with industrial effluents leads to a bigger problem as it contaminates the groundwater.
    • The presence of bicarbonates, nitrate, chloride anions and soil is calcareous since the carbonic acid created in the process enhances leaching efficiency of uranium from soils and sediments.

    Matter of urgent importance

    • With no guidelines or acceptable standards by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) regarding the amount of uranium in fertilizers produced in India, we are on a dead track.
    • Authorities’ concerned need to take cognizance and invest in less expensive R&D of the decontamination process.
    • At the same time, it is also necessary to specify the acceptable limit of Uranium in groundwater.

    Back2Basics

    Complete details of fertilizers

    http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/agriculture/agri_nutrientmgt_fertilizers.html

  • [pib] CHITRA Flow Diverter Stents

    The Sree Chitra Thirunal Institute of Medical Science and Tech. Thiruvanthapuram an Institute of National Importance under the Department of Science and Technology has developed an innovative intracranial flow diverter stent for the treatment of aneurysms of the blood  vessels of the brain.

    What is Aneurysms?

    • Intracranial aneurysm is a localized ballooning, bulging or dilation of arteries in the brain caused by progressive weakening of the inner muscles of the wall of the blood vessels.
    • Spontaneous rupture of the aneurysm can result in bleeding into the space around the brain resulting condition called a subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) which can lead to paralysis, coma or death.
    • Most often a ruptured brain aneurysm occurs in the space between the brain and the thin tissues covering the brain.

    How to avert risks of Brain Aneurysms?

    • Flow diverters stents when deployed in the artery in the brain bearing the aneurysms, diverts blood flow away from the aneurysm.
    • This reduces the chances of its rupture from the pressure of blood flow.
    • The Surgical treatment of an aneurysm involves opening the skull and a clip on the neck of aneurysm, so that it is cut off from the path of blood flow.
    • There are three non surgical, minimally invasive endovascular treatments of aneurysms of the brain.
    • In two of these procedures, the aneurismal sacis filled with platinum coils or occluded using high viscosity liquid polymer which solidifies when released into the sac thus sealing the sac.
    • All these techniques have some limitation or the other.

    Why are flow diverter stent preferable?

    • A more attractive third minimally invasive option is deploying a flow diverter stent to bypass the segment of the blood vessel which has the aneurysm.
    • Flow diverters have the advantages of being flexible and adaptable to the shape and course of the vessel.
    • Also flow diverters promote healing of the vessel wall by removing the constant stress of blood flow on it.

    What is CHITRA flow diverter?

    • The Chitra flow diverter is designed to have better grip on the walls of arteries of complex shapes in order to reduce the risk of migration of the device.
    • The unique design is in its weave also makes this stent resistant to kinking or twisting, when it is placed in tortuous arteries and those with complex shapes. Even a 180 degrees bend does not occlude the lumen of the stent.
    • Portion of the wires is made radio opaque for better visibility in X –Rays and fluoroscopy thus aiding accurate delivery of the diverter in the blood vessel.
    • Nitinol, a super elastic alloy with shape memory was acquired from National Aero Space Laboratories, Bengaluru (CSIR-NAL).
    • When the device is deployed at the site, it is released from its crimped locked position and assumes the desired and originally designed shape because of the shape memory property of Nitinol.

    Benefits of CHITRA

    • The imported Flow diverter stents costs Rs 7-8 lakhs and is not manufactured in India.
    • With the availability of the indigenous CHITRA, a well established industry would be able to manufacture and sell at a much lower price.

  • [pib] Star Labelling Programme

     

    The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) has included Deep Freezer and Light Commercial Air Conditioners (LCAC) under its Star Rating Programme on a voluntary basis.

    What is the news?

    • The program will be initially launched in voluntary mode from 2ndMarch, 2020 to 31st December, 2021.
    • Thereafter, it will be made mandatory after reviewing the degree of market transformation in this particular segment of appliances.
    • In order to cover split ACs beyond the scope of existing BEE star labeling program upto a cooling capacity of 18kW, BEE has prepared a star labeling program for split ACs having cooling capacities in excess of 10.5kW and upto 18.0 kW.
    • This category of Air conditioners is termed as LCAC primarily due to their application in commercial air conditioning.
    • Through this initiative, it is expected to save around 2.8 Billion Units by FY2030, which is equivalent to GHG reduction of 2.4-million-ton Carbon Dioxide.

    Why such move?

    • Energy Efficiency has the maximum GHG abatement potential of around 51% followed by renewables (32%), biofuels (1%), nuclear (8%), carbon capture and storage (8%) as per the World Energy Outlook (WEO 2010).
    • India can avoid building 300 GW of new power generation up to 2040 with the implementation of ambitious energy efficiency policies (IEA – India 2020).
    • Successful implementation of Energy Efficiency Measures contributed to electricity savings of 86.60 BUs i.e. 7.14% of total electricity consumption of the country and emission reduction of 108.28 million tonnes of CO2 during 2017-18.

    About Star Labeling Programme

    • The programme has been formulated by Bureau of Energy Efficiency, as part of its mandate, under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
    • Under this Programme, BEE has covered 24 appliances till date wherein 10 appliances are under the mandatory regime.
    • The existing BEE star labelling program for Air Conditioners is based on Indian Standard IS 1391 part 1, part 2 and covers AC with cooling capacities up to 10.5kW.

    Other facts: UDIT

    • Urja Dakshata Information Tool (UDIT) (udit.beeindia.gov.in), a first-ever initiative taken by BEE with the World Resources Institute (WRI), to facilitate a database on energy e­fficiency was also launched.
    • UDIT is a user-friendly platform that explains the energy efficiency landscape of India across industry, appliances, building, transport, municipal and agriculture sectors.
    • UDIT will also showcase the capacity building and new initiatives taken up by the Government across the sectors in the increasing energy efficiency domain.

  • Climate change and geopolitics converge to yield locust swarms

    Context

    Abnormal rainfall in the Arabian desert and an effect of the Yemen war have revived a menace that could hit Indian crops

    Butterfly effect- a fitting metaphor for locust attack

    • What is the butterfly effect? The butterfly effect occurs when a trivial cause, such as a butterfly fluttering its wings somewhere in an Amazon rainforest, triggers a series of events that end up having a massive impact elsewhere.
      • Edward Lorenz, the American meteorologist who coined the phrase in the early 1960s, came up with it while building a mathematical model to predict weather patterns.
      • Fitting metaphor: It is a fitting metaphor to explain a “plague” that is currently destroying vegetation and livelihoods in East Africa, the Arabian peninsula, Iran, Pakistan and India.

    The impact of the locust attack in the world

    • Impact in Africa: Several countries in Africa and Asia have been dealing with “the curse of good rains”: Massive swarms—called “plagues”—of the desert locust.
      • Swarms as large as 2,400 sq. km, comprising 200 billion insects, have already damaged over 70,000 hectares of crops in Kenya and around 30,000 hectares in Ethiopia.
    • Last month, Pakistan declared a national emergency over locusts.
    • Impact in India: In India, several districts in Gujarat and Rajasthan have been affected.
      • Rajasthan has announced a compensation of ₹13,500 per hectare to affected farmers.
      • While locust swarms continue to plague African countries, for now, the outbreak has tapered down in India with swarms headed back towards Sindh and Balochistan.
    • Possibility of return of the locusts: The expectation is that the locusts will be back in June, by which time their numbers would have grown fivefold.

    What are the locusts and how they form swarms?

    • Solitary creature: The brown-coloured desert locust usually lives as a solitary creature in the desert and bushlands.
    • Transformation and swarm formation: When several of them gather in close proximity, they undergo a dramatic physical transformation, change colour to black and bright yellow, become gregarious, and start moving around in swarms.
    • Contribution of moisture and temperature: Locusts lay their eggs a few inches under the soil in the presence of moisture, which hatch faster under higher temperatures.
      • Similarly, the flightless nymphs mature faster under warmer conditions and, within weeks, turn into adults that can form swarms of hundreds of millions of insects that can fly over 100km per day.
    • The scale of destruction: Each locust can eat its own body weight—around 2-3 grams—every day.
      • Which means that a swarm can consume hundreds of tonnes of vegetation that it encounters every day.

    Change in the behaviour pattern

    • Limited to recession areas: Normally, desert locusts are limited to a recession area enveloping the African Sahel to the west and Rajasthan to the east.
      • After international preventive control measures started in the 1940s, the intensity and spread of these swarms reduced, resulting only in regional plagues.

    What contributed to this year’s infestation?

    • Two factors contributed to this year’s infestation:
      • Abnormal weather conditions.
      • Region’s geopolitics.
    • Abnormal weather conditions: In 2018, two cyclones a few months apart delivered rain to the Rub al Khali, the remote desert called the “Empty Quarter” of the Arabian peninsula.
      • The resulting ephemeral lakes created new breeding grounds for the desert locust in a poorly monitored region.
    • Region’s geopolitics: Insecticide spraying operations were not conducted because of the war in Yemen.
      • The breeding continued before the swarms crossed the Gulf into Iran and the Red Sea to Ethiopia and Somalia in the Horn of Africa.
      • Here, too, conflict and political unrest limited control operations, leading to further breeding.
    • Another cyclone in 2019: In December 2019, another cyclonic storm hit the Horn of Africa, creating conditions for yet more breeding.
      • Today, the situation is dire in Somalia, Ethiopia and Kenya, and is worsening in Uganda and Tanzania.

    How affected countries are responding to the infestation?

    • Pakistan declared national emergency: Across the Persian Gulf, the Pakistani provinces of Balochistan and Sindh were initially affected, and when Punjab was hit, the government declared a national emergency and approached China for assistance.
    • How India is responding? Across the border, several districts in Gujarat and Rajasthan were affected and neighbouring states, including Uttar Pradesh, are now on alert.
      • Cooperation between India and Pakistan: Despite political tensions, Indian and Pakistani locust control officials met almost once a month over the second half of 2019 to exchange information, if not coordinate control efforts.
      • So far, India’s surveillance, preparedness and response have been competent and effective.
      • The national Locust Warning Organization was set up in 1939 and is well connected to international institutions created to manage locust risks.
      • It publishes weekly bulletins and even has a Twitter handle.
      • Bulletins show when locusts were detected, the location, extent and tonnage of insecticide sprayed and the risk of future infestation.
    • China’s preparedness: China is largely protected against locust plagues by geographical barriers, but is relatively vulnerable in the Xinjiang region.
      • Past similar event: Faced with a similar situation a couple of decades ago, the Chinese government had deployed hundreds of thousands of ducks that would eat the locusts in response to the blowing of a whistle.
      • Reports in the Chinese media indicate that Beijing plans to do the same this year.

     The immediate concern in India

    • Factors that could worsen the problem: Climate change, with higher temperatures and changes in the Indian Ocean Dipole, could worsen the locust problem for India in coming years.
    • The problem could overwhelm the capacity to control: The immediate concern is that by June 2020, there will probably be extraordinarily large swarms in India and that these could overwhelm the country’s current capacity to control them.
      • Preparedness measures by the government: The Union government is procuring additional spraying equipment and planning helicopter and drone-based control operations should the need arise.
      • Containing the swarms at India’s border states is crucial, as India’s agricultural heartland lies just beyond.

    Conclusion

    The government should take stock of its preparedness to deal with the imminent locust attack in June take necessary actions to deal with the menace as it could threaten India’s food security and economy.

     

     

     

  • Bharat Stage (BS) VI emission norms

    Oil marketing companies have informed that there will definitely be a marginal increase in retail prices of the fuels from April 1. Starting April 1, Bharat Stage (BS) VI emission norms come into force. This will be an upgrade on the currently prevalent BS-IV and BS-III norms.

    Why rise in Oil prices?

    • In effect, as India moves up the BS scale, automobiles become cleaner and greener but fuel will go costly.
    • Oil refiners have invested heavily to upgrade their refineries to produce the cleaner, BS-VI compliant fuel.
    • The increase in the pump price of fuel will partially offset this cost that the oil marketing companies have paid.
    • In effect, consumers will have to pay a little extra for auto fuel that is cleaner, and which, ultimately, is expected to lead to cleaner air.

    The BS norms

    • The BS emission standards are norms instituted by the Indian government to regulate the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engine equipment, including motor vehicles.
    • India has been following the European (Euro) emission norms, although with a time lag.
    • The more stringent the BS norm, lower is the tolerance for pollutants in automobile tailpipe emissions. Lower tailpipe emissions are the function of both more efficient engines, and cleaner fuels.

    How is BS-VI fuel different from BS-IV fuel?

    • The main difference between BS-IV and BS-VI (which is comparable to Euro 6) is in the amount of sulphur in the fuel.
    • The lower the sulphur, the cleaner the fuel, so BS-VI fuel is essentially low-sulphur diesel and petrol.
    • BS-VI fuel is estimated to bring around an 80% reduction in sulphur content — from 50 parts per million (ppm) to 10 ppm.
    • Also NOx emissions from diesel cars are expected to come down by nearly 70% and, from cars with petrol engines, by 25%.

    How will things change with the new fuels?

    • Cleaner fuel alone will not make a dramatic difference to air pollution.
    • For the full benefits to be experienced, the introduction of the higher grade fuel must go hand in hand with the rollout of BS-VI compliant vehicles as well.
    • While automakers will sell only BS-VI vehicles from April 1, all BS-IV vehicles sold before that date will stay on the road for as long as their registration is valid.
    • This, however, could be a concern because using BS-VI fuel in the current BS-IV engines (or conversely, running BS-VI engines on the current-grade fuel), may be both ineffective in curbing vehicular pollution, as well as damage the engine in the long run.

    Back2Basics

    History of BS norms in India

    • India introduced emission norms first in 1991, and tightened them in 1996, when most vehicle manufacturers had to incorporate technology upgrades such as catalytic converters to cut exhaust emissions.
    • Fuel specifications based on environmental considerations were notified first in April 1996, to be implemented by 2000, and incorporated in BIS 2000 standards.
    • Following the landmark Supreme Court order of April 1999, the Centre notified Bharat Stage-I (BIS 2000) and Bharat Stage-II norms, broadly equivalent to Euro I and Euro II respectively.
    • BS-II was for the National Capital Region and other metros; BS-I for the rest of India.
    • From April 2005, in line with the Auto Fuel Policy of 2003, BS-III and BS-II fuel quality norms came into existence for 13 major cities, and for the rest of the country respectively.
    • From April 2010, BS-IV and BS-III norms were put in place in 13 major cities and the rest of India respectively.
    • As per the Policy roadmap, BS-V and BS-VI norms were to be implemented from April 1, 2022, and April 1, 2024 respectively.
    • But in November 2015, the Road Transport Ministry issued a draft notification advancing the implementation of BS-V norms for new four-wheel vehicle models to April 1, 2019, and for existing models to April 1, 2020.

  • Migratory species in India

     

     

    With new additions to the wildlife list put out by the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS), scientists say that the total number of migratory fauna from India comes to 457 species.

    Migratory species in India

    • Globally, more than 650 species are listed under the CMS appendices and India, with over 450 species, plays a very important role in their conservation.
    • The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) had for the first time compiled the list of migratory species of India under the CMS before the Conference of Parties (COP 13) held in Gujarat recently.
    • It had put the number at 451. They are the Asian elephant, great Indian bustard, Bengal florican, oceanic white-tip shark, urial and smooth hammerhead shark.
    • Birds comprise 83% (380 species) of this figure.

    Various species mentioned

    • India has three flyways (flight paths used by birds): the Central Asian flyway, East Asian flyway and East Asian–Australasian flyway.
    • In India, their migratory species number 41, followed by ducks (38) belonging to the family Anatidae.
    • The estimate of 44 migratory mammal species in India has risen to 46 after COP 13.
    • The largest group of mammals is definitely bats belonging to the family Vespertilionidae. Dolphins are the second highest group of mammals with nine migratory species of dolphins listed.
    • Fishes make up another important group of migratory species. Before COP 13, the ZSI had compiled 22 species, including 12 sharks and 10 ray fish.
    • Seven reptiles, which include five species of turtles and the Indian gharial and salt water crocodile, are among the CMS species found in India. There was no addition to the reptiles list.

  • Species in news: Eurasian Otters

     

     

    Researchers conducting a study in Odisha’s Chilika Lake have found the presence of a viable, breeding population of Eurasian Otters, a fishing cat in the brackish water lagoon.

    Eurasian Otters

    • IUCN Status: Near Threatened
    • Species in India: Smooth-coated, Asian small-clawed and Eurasian Otters
    • Habitat: Smooth-coated — all over India; Asian small-clawed — only in the Himalayan foothills, parts of the Eastern and southern Western Ghats; Eurasian — Western Ghats and Himalayas.
    • Diet comprises several small animals, mainly crabs and small fishes.
    • Lives in small packs, is mostly nocturnal, but can be diurnal in areas which are less disturbed.

  • Locust Invasions and its mitigation

     

     

    The locust, a short-horned, desert grasshopper that attacks standing crops and green vegetation, has been making news in India since May-June 2019 when it appeared in Rajasthan and Gujarat. In Kharif season last year, it was also seen in a few areas along Punjab’s border with Rajasthan.

    Context

    • The Locust Warning Organisation (LWO) has been taking measures to control attacks by the pest for the past eight decades in the country.
    • Despite all of LWO’s efforts, the chain of periodic locust attacks in India is yet to be broken.

    Why Locusts attacks are deadly?

    • Adult locust swarms can fly up to 150 km (93 miles) a day with the wind and adult insects can consume roughly their own weight in fresh food per day.
    • A very small swarm eats as much in one day as about 35,000 people.
    • If allowed to breed unchecked in favourable conditions, locusts can form huge swarms that can strip trees and crops over vast areas.

    About LWO

    • In India, the scheme Locust Control and Research (LC&R) is responsible for control of Desert Locust.
    • It is being implemented through Organisation known as “Locust Warning Organisation (LWO)” established in 1939 and later amalgamated with the Directorate of Plant Protection Quarantine and Storage in 1946.
    • Locust Warning organization (LWO) is responsible to monitor and control the locust situation in Scheduled Desert Area (SDA) mainly in the States of Rajasthan and Gujarat while partly in the States of Punjab and Haryana.
    • It keeps itself abreast with the prevailing locust situation at National and International level through monthly Desert Locust Bulletins of FAO.

    What measures are being taken by the LWO to control locust breeding/attacks in India?

    • Experts at the LWO said around three dozen offices including 10 circle offices are working on this issue.
    • They have been doing regular field surveys to keeping a close and regular watch on an over two lakh sq. km area (nearly 11,500 villages) of three states including 1.79 lakh sq. km in Rajasthan (52 per cent of the state’s total area), and the remaining in Gujarat and Haryana.
    • To observe the locust, intensive surveys are conducted by walking along the wind direction and driving at low speed to count flying locusts.

    How often have there been locust attacks in India?

    • The pests have been appearing periodically after a gap of 2-3 or 5-7 years. Around 26 locust attacks have taken place in India in two major cycles.
    • After independence (1947), 25 attacks were observed. Among these, the attacks of 1949-55, 1962 and 1993 were most devastating when 167 and 172 swarms were noticed in 1962 and 1993 respectively.
    • Since 1993, locust attacks have occurred less frequently. The latest attack of 2019-20, has had quite a severe effect on crops in Rajasthan.

    Financial losses incurred

    • According to LWO, to date, the financial loss due to locusts is said to be Rs 50 lakh, Rs 2 lakh and Rs 7.18 lakh in 1962, 1978 and 1993 respectively.
    • A loss of Rs 2 crore was incurred in 1940-46 and 1949-55. Before the LWO was formed, a loss of Rs 10 crore is estimated in the 1926-31 cycle.

    Why has the chain not been broken even after 80 years?

    • LWO experts said it is because there are 30 countries in four regions of different continents that have an arid climate with large deserts that provide an ideal breeding ground for the locust.
    • Most of the time, locusts are coming to India from Pakistan, or from the Middle East via Pakistan.
    • There are four commissions for these 30 countries which include Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan and India.
    • Laxity by any country would lead to its spread in all these countries which they invade one after another by following almost the same path.
    • The swarms which are coming to India (Rajasthan) have been following the same path, starting from central or western region and then Pakistan mostly in summers.
    • Apart from breaking the chain of summer attacks, the winter swarm has now posed another challenge.

    Where did the current locust attack originate?

    • The locust breeds in high temperatures and high humidity, which is prevalent in areas around the Red Sea.
    • The current attack in India, which started in 2019, has its origin in Yemen, where there was internal conflict and civil war.
    • When the locust was breeding in heavy numbers there in 2018-19, the country could not take care due to its attention towards the civil war and lack of resources to control it.
    • The insect went out of control, took the route of Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, Somalia, Ethiopia and other countries located on both sides of the Red Sea where they multiplied rapidly.

    Control measures

    • The chain can be broken only when the pest is killed at the time of breeding or before migration to another country.
    • Farmers used to try to drive away the locusts by lighting fires. They also dug up the eggs.
    • Now crops can be sprayed with insecticides from vehicles or airplanes.
    • Scientists are trying to improve the control of locusts, by preventing or dispersing swarms.

    Also read:

    https://www.civilsdaily.com/news/desert-locusts-incursion-in-india/