The Supreme Court of India clarified that accused persons who voluntarily consent can continue to face proceedings under Section 124A (sedition), even though the constitutional validity of the law remains under challenge.
Background
Section 124A (Sedition)
Part of the: Indian Penal Code (IPC), 1860
Introduced during: British colonial rule in 1898
Punishes: Acts or speech considered to incite disaffection against the government
Earlier Supreme Court Position (2022)
In May 2022, the Supreme Court:
Suspended fresh sedition cases and ongoing proceedings.
Observed that Section 124A:
Reflected colonial mindset
Had chilling effect on free speech
Was widely misused
The Court noted the Union government’s statement that outdated colonial laws should be reconsidered.
Recent Clarification (May 21, 2026)
Kamran vs State of Madhya Pradesh.
The Court clarified: If accused persons voluntarily agree, courts may proceed with sedition trials on merits.
Purpose
To protect:
Right to speedy trial
Timely closure of pending cases
Constitutional Challenge Still Pending
The constitutional validity of Section 124A remains under challenge in S.G. Vombatkere vs Union of India
Main Grounds of Challenge
Petitioners argue Section 124A violates:
Freedom of speech and expression
Personal liberty
Equality before law
under Article 19, Article 21, and Article 14 of the Constitution.
Concerns Raised
Legal and Practical Issues
Lower courts may decide guilt while constitutionality remains unresolved.
Clarification did not address situations where:
One accused consents
Co-accused refuse
Historical Context
Colonial Origins: Sedition law was used by British authorities against:
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Mahatma Gandhi
[2025] “Sedition has become my religion” was the famous statement given by Gandhiji at the time of:
(a) The Champaran Satyagraha
(b) publicly violating Salt Law at Dandi
(c) attending the Second Round Table Conference in London
Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Why in the News?
During talks in New Delhi, India and the United States emphasised the need for safe and unimpeded maritime commerce amid tensions around the Strait of Hormuz.
Key Highlights
Marco Rubio held discussions with S. Jaishankar in New Delhi.
Major issues discussed:
Energy security
Maritime trade
Bilateral trade
Visa issues
Indo-Pacific cooperation
Maritime Security Concerns
Both countries stressed:
Safe and uninterrupted maritime commerce
Stability in the: Strait of Hormuz
U.S. Concerns
Marco Rubio accused Iran of:
Blocking maritime movement
Supporting proxy groups
Threatening international waterways
India’s Position
India highlighted:
Importance of diversified energy supplies
Need for peaceful diplomatic solutions
Risks to global supply chains from West Asia conflict
Indo-Pacific Significance
The U.S. reiterated support for: A “Free and Open Indo-Pacific”
Importance
Ensures:
Freedom of navigation
Secure sea lanes
Stable global trade routes
Trade Discussions
U.S. trade measures are part of a broader economic policy
Relations with Pakistan or other countries are not at India’s expense
Strategic Importance of Strait of Hormuz
One of the world’s most important oil transit chokepoints.
Large share of global crude oil and LNG trade passes through it.
Vital for India’s energy imports.
Consider the following statements: Statement-I: Recently, the United States of America (USA) and the European Union (EU) have launched the Trade and Technology Council”. Statement-II: The USA and the EU claim that through this they are trying to bring technological progress and physical productivity under their control. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
[A] Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I.
[B] Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I.
[C] Statement-l is correct but Statement-II is incorrect.
[D] Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct.
PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2023] What are the different elements of cyber security? Keeping in view the challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy.Linkage: The PYQ directly connects with the article’s themes of cyber threats, legal gaps, attribution challenges, and cyber governance. It helps in linking cyber warfare with India’s preparedness, cyber norms, and accountability mechanisms in internal and international security.
Mentor’s Comment
The recent Israel-Iran conflict showed that wars are no longer fought only with missiles and soldiers. Along with military attacks, cyberattacks were reportedly used to disrupt websites, communication systems, and digital networks. This has highlighted a growing problem: while cyber warfare is becoming faster and more dangerous, international laws are struggling to hold countries or groups accountable. This is mainly because it is difficult to identify who carried out the attack and prove responsibility.
Why is cyber warfare increasingly becoming an instrument of modern conflict?
Hybrid Warfare: Combines cyber operations with conventional military action to weaken communication systems, influence public narratives, and disrupt defence preparedness. Recent Israel-Iran tensions reflected simultaneous cyber disruptions alongside kinetic strikes.
Strategic Disruption: Enables attacks on websites, digital services, and information ecosystems without immediate physical confrontation, reducing costs of escalation.
Military Utility: Supports conventional military campaigns through disruption of command-and-control systems, logistics, and surveillance capabilities before physical attacks.
Non-State Participation: Expands battlefield actors beyond states. The pro-Iranian Handala Hack Team reportedly claimed cyberattacks on entities, including a U.S.-based medical technology company.
Low-Cost Asymmetry: Allows weaker actors to impose disproportionate costs on technologically advanced states through malware, ransomware, or infrastructure sabotage.
Why is establishing legal accountability in cyber warfare so difficult?
Threshold Ambiguity: International law prohibits the use of force under Article 2(4) of the UN Charter, but determining when cyber operations amount to “use of force” remains contested.
Classification Problem: Distinguishing between cyber espionage, cybercrime, sabotage, and armed attack remains legally unclear, complicating state responsibility.
Attribution Challenge: Cyber operations are covert by nature. Attackers frequently conceal origins through proxy servers, spoofing, and third-party infrastructure, making definitive attribution difficult.
State Responsibility Gap: International law requires attribution of conduct to a state for legal responsibility. Technical suspicion often fails to meet evidentiary thresholds admissible before courts.
Uncertain Harm Assessment: Difficulty in proving direct causation between cyber operations and measurable physical or economic harm weakens accountability.
Example: Cyberattacks targeting critical infrastructure may create large-scale disruption, yet legal consequences remain limited if attribution cannot be conclusively established.
How do limitations of international law weaken cyber accountability?
Legal Applicability: Existing principles of sovereignty, non-intervention, and prohibition of force theoretically apply to cyberspace.
Enforcement Deficit: International legal frameworks rarely produce prosecutions or compensation despite growing cyber incidents.
Doctrinal Mismatch: Traditional legal frameworks were developed for geographically identifiable and physically attributable conflict, unlike decentralized cyber operations.
Absence of Consensus: States disagree on what constitutes armed attack, proportionality, and lawful retaliation in cyberspace.
Normative Fragmentation: Different national interpretations prevent development of universally accepted cyber rules.
Example: A cyberattack disrupting electricity or healthcare systems may create severe consequences but still fall into a legal grey zone below the threshold of armed conflict.
Why do attribution and evidence create major barriers to litigation?
Secrecy of Operations: Cyber incidents frequently involve classified intelligence, covert capabilities, and anonymous actors.
Evidentiary Constraints: Technical evidence often remains insufficient for legal admissibility in courts.
Causation Complexity: Courts face difficulties in establishing who conducted the operation, the extent of damage caused, and links to specific harm.
Sensitive Information Risks: Litigation may require disclosure of intelligence capabilities, creating national security concerns.
Escalation Risks: States often avoid formal legal proceedings to prevent diplomatic retaliation or military escalation.
Example: Even where intelligence agencies possess strong suspicions, states may avoid public attribution due to inability to disclose classified evidence.
Why are international legal forums inadequate for cyber disputes?
Jurisdictional Limitations: The International Court of Justice (ICJ) requires state consent, limiting compulsory dispute settlement.
Sovereign Immunity: Foreign states often enjoy immunity protections in domestic courts.
Institutional Deficit: No dedicated global tribunal exists for cyber conflict resolution.
Limited Legal Remedies: Victims struggle to secure reparations, injunctions, or punitive action.
Example: Domestic courts face obstacles when foreign-state actors conduct cyber intrusions through multiple jurisdictions.
How are international institutions attempting to regulate cyberspace?
Budapest Convention on Cybercrime: Establishes international cooperation mechanisms against cybercrime and digital evidence sharing. However, focus remains primarily on criminal enforcement rather than state cyber warfare.
UN Convention against Cybercrime: Expands global legal cooperation to address emerging cyber threats.
UN Framework Discussions: Ongoing deliberations seek responsible state behaviour, accountability norms, and confidence-building measures in cyberspace.
Norm Development: Attempts to define acceptable conduct, critical infrastructure protection, and proportional responses.
Why must India actively shape emerging cyber norms?
Digital Dependence: India increasingly relies on digital infrastructure across finance, governance, energy, healthcare, and defence.
Strategic Vulnerability: Greater digitisation increases exposure to cyber espionage, infrastructure disruption, and information warfare.
Normative Leadership: India can influence evolving global cyber governance frameworks through multilateral diplomacy.
Institutional Participation: Active engagement in accountability, attribution standards, and responsible state behaviour strengthens India’s strategic interests.
Cyber Preparedness: Enhances resilience of critical information infrastructure and national security architecture.
Example: India’s expanding digital public infrastructure, including UPI and Aadhaar-linked systems, requires stronger cyber resilience frameworks.
Conclusion
Cyber warfare is growing faster than global laws can handle. It is difficult to identify attackers and prove responsibility. Existing legal systems are not fully prepared for digital conflicts. Countries, including India, must strengthen cyber security and help build stronger global cyber rules.
International Legal Frameworks Relevant to Cyber Warfare
Tallinn Manual 2.0: Non-binding academic interpretation of how international law applies to cyber operations and cyber warfare.
Article 2(4), UN Charter: Prohibits threat or use of force against territorial integrity or political independence of states.
Due Diligence Principle: The concept was solidified by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in the landmark 1949 Corfu Channel Case, which ruled that a state cannot knowingly allow its territory to be used for acts contrary to the rights of other states.
Principle of Sovereignty: Recognises cyber intrusions into critical systems as possible violations of territorial sovereignty. It is anchored in the UN Charter (1945) under Article 2(1), which declares the sovereign equality of all member nations.
Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC): Governs proportionality, distinction, and military necessity in cyber-enabled warfare. It is heavily codified under the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and their Additional Protocols (1977), as well as the Hague Conventions. It is also known as International Humanitarian Law (IHL).
India’s Cyber Institutional Architecture
CERT-In: Coordinates cyber incident response and vulnerability management.
National Critical Information Infrastructure Protection Centre (NCIIPC): Protects critical sectors including banking, telecom, power, and transport.
National Cyber Security Policy: Strengthens resilience, skill development, and institutional coordination.
Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): Supports cybercrime prevention and inter-agency cooperation.
Government bond yields across major economies have risen sharply, reaching some of the highest levels since the 2008 Global Financial Crisis. India’s 10-year government bond yield increased from 6.58% (Dec 2025) to 7.08% (May 2026), while major economies such as the United States and the United Kingdom also witnessed rising yields.
Why Do Governments Borrow Money?
Revenue Gap: Governments frequently face expenditure commitments exceeding tax and non-tax revenues, requiring borrowing to bridge fiscal deficits.
Developmental Spending: Developing countries often require greater public expenditure on infrastructure, welfare, health, and education.
Weak Tax Base: Lower-middle-income countries face constraints in revenue mobilization due to a smaller formal tax-paying population.
Counter-Cyclical Fiscal Policy: Governments borrow during economic slowdowns to sustain growth through public expenditure.
Debt Refinancing: Existing debt obligations often require fresh borrowing for repayment and rollover.
Example: Advanced economies with slow growth increasingly depend on debt-financed expenditure.
What Are Bonds?
Debt Instrument: A bond is a financial instrument through which governments or companies borrow money from investors for a fixed period.
Loan Mechanism: Investors lend money to the issuer, who promises periodic interest payments and repayment of principal at maturity.
Fixed Return Structure: Most bonds carry a fixed coupon rate, ensuring regular interest income.
How Do Governments Borrow Through Bonds?
Government Securities (G-Secs): Governments issue bonds to investors for a specified period in return for annual interest payments.
Fixed Coupon Payments: A bond issued at ₹100 with a 5% coupon pays ₹5annually until maturity.
Principal Repayment: Governments return the original invested amount at maturity.
Sovereign Guarantee: Government bonds are considered relatively safer because sovereign default risks remain comparatively low.
Benchmark Role: Government bond yields influence borrowing rates for homes, factories, businesses, and infrastructure financing.
Example: India issues government securities (G-Secs), while the United States issues Treasury bonds.
Why Are Government Bond Yields Rising Globally?
Bond yield is simply the return (profit/interest) an investor earns from lending money to the government through bonds. Bond yields rise and fall because bond prices change in the market.
Inflationary Pressures: Rising inflation reduces the real return on investments, compelling investors to demand higher yields.
Increased Borrowing Requirements: Governments facing wars, welfare commitments, or fiscal stress require greater borrowing, increasing bond supply.
Higher Risk Perception: Investors demand greater compensation where macroeconomic uncertainty or fiscal deficits rise.
Monetary Tightening: Central banks maintain higher policy rates to control inflation, indirectly pushing bond yields upward.
Debt Sustainability Concerns: High public debt increases investor caution regarding fiscal management.
Example: A hypothetical war-induced rise in government spending increases borrowing demand, leading lenders to seek higher returns.
How Do Rising Bond Yields Affect Existing Bond Prices?
Inverse Relationship: Bond prices move inversely to yields.
Price Correction: A bond paying a fixed annual return becomes less attractive when newer bonds offer higher returns.
Capital Loss Risk: Existing bondholders may incur losses if they sell older low-yield bonds before maturity.
Illustration: A bond bought at $100 with 5% annual returns becomes unattractive when new bonds offer 10% returns, forcing its market value downward, potentially toward $50.
Why Are Rising Bond Yields Bad News for Governments?
Fiscal Stress: Governments spend a larger share of budgets on interest payments.
Crowding Out: Higher sovereign borrowing costs reduce fiscal space for productive expenditure.
Welfare Compression: Governments may reduce social welfare spending to accommodate debt servicing.
Tax Burden: States may increase taxes to meet rising debt obligations.
Refinancing Risk: Countries refinancing trillions of dollars face increased fiscal pressure.
Example: High debt servicing can reduce expenditure on welfare schemes and defence modernization.
How Do Rising Bond Yields Affect Businesses and Citizens?
Higher Loan Costs: Banks and lenders raise interest rates for businesses and households.
Why Is the Current Global Yield Trend Significant?
Post-2008 Highs: Borrowing costs have reached levels not witnessed since the Global Financial Crisis.
Global Synchronisation: Yield increases are visible across both developed and emerging economies.
Debt Vulnerability: High public debt accumulated after COVID-19 increases refinancing risks.
Policy Dilemma: Governments face trade-offs between inflation control and economic growth support.
Conclusion
Rising government bond yields signify tightening financial conditions and growing fiscal pressures across economies. Since sovereign yields act as the benchmark for economy-wide borrowing costs, persistent increases can constrain welfare spending, private investment, and growth prospects. Fiscal prudence, inflation management, and sustainable debt strategies remain essential to mitigate the long-term risks of expensive borrowing.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2019] The public expenditure management is a challenge to the Government of India in context of budget making during the post liberalization period. Clarify it.
Linkage: The PYQ focuses on public expenditure management and fiscal pressures in budget-making after liberalisation. Rising bond yields increase government borrowing costs and interest burden. This reduces fiscal space for welfare, infrastructure, and development spending.
The recent Ebola outbreak in Uganda has revived concerns over whether repeated animal-to-human spillovers could trigger a future pandemic. The concern is significant because Ebola outbreaks are increasingly occurring in urban areas, unlike earlier outbreaks largely confined to remote forests. However, experts argue that despite rising spillover risks, Ebola still lacks the sustained human-to-human transmission needed for a pandemic.
What is Ebola disease?
Ebola disease, or Ebola virus disease (EVD), is a rare but severe and highly fatal illness caused by a group of viruses in the genus Orthoebolavirus. It is characterized by viral hemorrhagic fever, causing widespread inflammation, internal bleeding, and organ failure.
Transmission & Origins
Animal to Human: It is a zoonotic disease originating in wildlife. Fruit bats are considered the natural host, and the virus can spread to humans via contact with infected animals or consumption of “bushmeat”.
Human to Human: Spread requires direct contact with bodily fluids (blood, saliva, sweat, vomit, feces, urine, etc.) of an infected person. It is not an airborne disease.
Contaminated Objects: It can also be contracted by touching surfaces, needles, or clothing contaminated with these fluids.
Are Climate Change and Ecological Disruptions Increasing Ebola Spillover Risk?
Spillover risk refers to the possibility of a disease-causing pathogen (virus, bacteria, etc.) jumping from animals to humans.
Habitat Disruption: Deforestation, mining, and agricultural expansion increase human interaction with fruit bats, considered natural reservoirs of Ebola, raising spillover chances.
Changing Disease Ecology: Altered rainfall and temperature patterns affect wildlife movement and feeding behaviour, increasing contact between animals and humans.
Human Encroachment: Expansion of settlements into forest ecosystems exposes communities to infected wildlife through hunting, farming, and bushmeat consumption.
Urbanisation Effect: Ecological stress combined with migration increases the possibility of outbreaks emerging closer to densely populated areas.
One Health Imperative: Rising spillover risk strengthens the need for an integrated human-animal-environment health approach for surveillance and prevention.
Why Does Spillover Risk Not Automatically Translate into Pandemic Potential?
Pandemic Requirement: Pandemic-capable viruses require efficient and sustained human-to-human transmission, particularly across large populations and geographies.
Transmission Constraint: Ebola spreads primarily through direct contact with infected bodily fluids, unlike airborne respiratory viruses.
Biological Limitation: Not all viruses possess the evolutionary capacity to adapt for sustained human transmission.
Urban Presence is not equal to Pandemic: Mere entry into urban centres does not ensure global spread unless the pathogen sustains continuous chains of transmission.
Comparative Insight: Respiratory viruses such as COVID-19 spread rapidly due to aerosol transmission, unlike Ebola’s contact-based spread.
How Has Ebola’s Epidemiological Pattern Changed Over Time?
Uganda Outbreak: The current outbreak has renewed attention to changing disease geography and regional vulnerability.
Increased Frequency: WHO has highlighted growing concerns over the frequency and scale of Ebola outbreaks.
Cross-Border Risk: Urbanisation and increased mobility raise possibilities of international exportation of isolated cases, though sustained spread remains unlikely.
What Makes Ebola Different from Pandemic Viruses?
Transmission Mode: Ebola spreads through blood, saliva, sweat, tears, vomit, faeces, breast milk, semen, and contaminated surfaces, requiring close contact.
Incubation Period: Symptoms generally emerge after 2-21 days, allowing surveillance and containment opportunities.
Symptom Visibility: Severe symptoms such as fever, headache, sore throat, vomiting, diarrhoea, bleeding, and organ dysfunction enable faster case identification.
Lack of Airborne Spread: Ebola fundamentally differs from influenza or coronaviruses due to the absence of efficient airborne transmission.
Geographic Containment: Major outbreaks have historically remained regionally concentrated, despite occasional international spread.
How Serious Is the Threat of Repeated Ebola Outbreaks Despite Low Pandemic Risk?
The threat of repeated Ebola outbreaks remains severe and critical, because even though the virus is highly unlikely to trigger a global pandemic, its localized impact completely devastates the regions it strikes.
Health System Fragility: Repeated outbreaks expose weaknesses in infrastructure, surveillance, and healthcare delivery systems, particularly in vulnerable countries.
Economic Burden: Outbreaks strain already fragile economies through healthcare expenditure, movement restrictions, and productivity loss.
Public Health Disruption: Healthcare systems divert resources from routine immunisation and essential services.
Humanitarian Impact: Fear, stigma, and mortality affect social cohesion and trust in institutions.
Can Existing Public Health Systems Handle Repeated Ebola Outbreaks?
Infrastructure Constraint: Countries facing outbreaks often suffer from fragile healthcare infrastructure, low laboratory capacity, and shortages of trained personnel.
Example: In the May 2026 Bundibugyo virus outbreak affecting the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Uganda, inadequate isolation systems and unsafe medical environments immediately caused a severe cluster of infections among the healthcare workers themselves.
In the 2025 Ebola outbreak in Kasai Province, healthcare teams had to track down and manually monitor 572 unique contacts across massive, hard-to-reach rural zones to successfully stop the transmission chain
Preparedness Gap: Pandemic preparedness systems remain uneven across regions.
The global vaccine emergency stockpile sits at a healthy target of 500,000 doses. But because funding drops between crises, roughly 42,000 precious doses simply expired unused on shelves due to sluggish preventive distribution pipelines
Reliance on WHO & International Coordination: Local governments cannot foot the bill or logistics alone, leaving them dependent on global emergency bodies for basic survival.
In May 2026, the WHO had to declare the central African outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) and use UNICEF’s ultra-cold chain supply network to rush specialized resources to the area within a 7-day window
Community Engagement: Local trust-building improves compliance with containment measures.
How Effective Are Existing Ebola Vaccines and Treatments?
Vaccine Success: Two approved vaccines, Ervebo and Zabdeno/Mvabea, offer strong protection against the Zaire strain.
Strain Limitation: Vaccines currently have limited cross-strain effectiveness, leaving gaps for other Ebola variants.
Bundibugyo Challenge: Vaccines for the Bundibugyo strain remain under development.
Medical Countermeasures: Expanded therapeutic options improve survival prospects during outbreaks.
Research Need: Viral evolution necessitates continued investment in strain-specific vaccines.
Can Artificial Intelligence Improve Ebola Preparedness and Surveillance?
Data Analytics: AI supports rapid analysis of large epidemiological datasets.
Outbreak Prediction: Machine learning models improve early warning systems and hotspot prediction.
Medical Countermeasures: AI accelerates drug discovery and vaccine development.
Surveillance Support: Real-time analytics improve disease tracking and response coordination.
Resource Allocation: Predictive tools facilitate targeted deployment of healthcare resources.
How Important Is Public Trust in Ebola Outbreak Management?
Behavioural Compliance: Trust improves adherence to isolation, contact tracing, and safe burial practices.
Institutional Legitimacy: Effective communication reduces misinformation and panic.
Community Participation: Local cooperation determines outbreak containment success.
Past Lessons: Distrust during previous outbreaks undermined surveillance and treatment efforts.
Conclusion
Repeated Ebola outbreaks underscore that spillover risk and pandemic risk are not synonymous. While urban outbreaks, ecological disruption, and global mobility elevate concern, Ebola’s limited transmission biology constrains sustained worldwide spread. Rising zoonotic threats necessitate stronger surveillance, resilient health infrastructure, vaccine innovation, and trust-based governance to prevent local outbreaks from escalating into larger crises.
PYQ RelevanceIs Spillover Risk the Same as Pandemic Risk?Spillover Risk: Refers to the likelihood of a pathogen jumping from animals to humans, causing isolated infections or local outbreaks. Pandemic Risk: Refers to the ability of a disease to achieve efficient and sustained human-to-human transmission across countries and continents. Ebola Example: Ebola has high spillover risk due to repeated zoonotic transmission from wildlife, but low pandemic risk because it spreads mainly through close bodily contact. COVID-19 Contrast: COVID-19 transformed from a spillover event into a pandemic because of rapid respiratory transmission among humans. Policy Significance: Distinguishing the two helps governments avoid panic while strengthening surveillance, containment, and preparedness systems. What Determines Pandemic Potential? Sustained Transmission: Efficient human-to-human spread.Reproduction Rate (R0): Ability to generate secondary infections. Mutation Capacity: Viral adaptation for new transmission pathways.Global Connectivity: International mobility patterns.Global Examples of Zoonotic Spillovers Nipah Virus (India/Bangladesh): Bat-to-human transmission with limited spread.COVID-19: Example of spillover evolving into pandemic due to respiratory transmission. Avian Influenza (H5N1): High mortality but limited human transmission.Governance Lessons for India Integrated Surveillance: Strengthens disease detection through the Integrated Disease Surveillance Programme (IDSP). One Health Approach: Enhances coordination between human, animal, and environmental health systems. Preparedness Systems: Improves laboratory networks, genomic surveillance, and emergency response capacity.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2020] COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology was sought to aid management of the pandemic
Linkage: The Ebola outbreak re-opens debate about pandemic preparedness, disease surveillance, vaccines, and outbreak management, similar to the COVID-19 experience. The article also helps in understanding the distinction between spillover risk and pandemic risk in zoonotic diseases like Ebola.
Warheads can strike Different targets independently
[2014] With reference to Agni-IV Missile, consider the following statements; 1.It is a surface-to-surface missile. 2.It is fuelled by liquid propellant alone. 3.It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 4000 kms. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India
Why in the News?
India and Cyprus elevated bilateral ties to a Strategic Partnership during the visit of Cypriot President Nikos Christodoulides to India.
Key Highlights
Strategic Partnership
Prime Minister Narendra Modi and the Cypriot President agreed to strengthen cooperation in:
Defence
Trade and investment
Maritime security
Cybersecurity
Emerging technologies
Defence Cooperation
India and Cyprus signed an MoU between:
Cyprus Defence and Space Industries Cluster
Society of Indian Defence Manufacturers
India’s Position on Cyprus
PM Modi emphasised:
Respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity
Support for democratic principles and rule of law
Strategic Context
The statement is seen as indirect support for Cyprus in its dispute involving Northern Cyprus and Türkiye.
Cyprus as a Gateway to Europe
Cyprus highlighted its role as an investment gateway to the European Union
Current Position: Cyprus currently holds the Presidency of the Council of the European Union.
[2024] Consider the following statements: Statement I: The Sumed pipeline is a strategic route for Persian Gulf oil and Natural gas shipments to Europe. Statement-II: Sumed pipeline connects the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
[A] Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I
[B] Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
[C] Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect
[D] Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct
Parents and students approached the Supreme Court of India challenging the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) policy making three languages compulsory for Class 9 students from July 1, 2026.
Key Highlights
Petitioners sought urgent hearing against the new CBSE language policy.
Senior advocate Mukul Rohatgi argued that students cannot suddenly begin learning a new language before Class 10 Board examinations.
What Does the CBSE Circular Say?
According to the May 15 circular:
Class 9 students must study: Three languages
At least: Two must be Indian languages
Foreign Languages
Allowed only as:
Third language
Optional fourth language
Link with NEP 2020
The policy is based on:
National Education Policy 2020
National Curriculum Framework for School Education (NCF-SE) 2023
CBSE Clarification
No Board examination for the third language in Class 10.
Assessment will be:
School-based
Internal evaluation
Concerns Raised
Petitioners argued:
Increased academic burden
Student stress and peer pressure
Difficulty in adapting to a new language at Class 9 stage
Court Response
Chief Justice Surya Kant stated that the matter would be listed before the appropriate Bench next week.
About the Three-Language Formula
Encourages multilingual learning in schools.
Originally recommended in earlier national education policies.
Aims to promote:
Indian languages
National integration
Linguistic diversity
[2012] Which of the following provisions of the Constitution of India have a bearing on Education? 1. Directive Principles of State Policy 2. Rural and Urban Local Bodies 3. Fifth Schedule 4. Sixth Schedule 5. Seventh Schedule Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
The latest Sample Registration System (SRS) 2024 bulletin shows India undergoing a major demographic transition, with declining birth rates, death rates, and infant mortality rates.
Key Findings
Birth Rate
Fell from: 21 (2014) to 18.3 (2024)
Measured as: Live births per 1,000 population
Death Rate
Declined from: 6.7 to 6.4
Measured as: Deaths per 1,000 population
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
Reduced from 39 to 24
IMR: Number of infant deaths per 1,000 live births
Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
PYQ Relevance[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.Linkage: This PYQ is highly relevant as the Ladakh debate concerns federal balance, democratic representation, and Centre-region relations in a Union Territory framework. The article directly examines tensions between administrative centralisation and political autonomy, making it useful for answers on cooperative and asymmetrical federalism.
Mentor’s Comment
Ladakh’s demand for constitutional representation has intensified after the Union Ministry of Home Affairs reportedly argued that additional districts and administrative decentralisation may be more suitable for Ladakh than a legislature or Sixth Schedule protections. The issue is significant because Ladakh occupies a strategically sensitive frontier bordering China and Pakistan. At the same time, it remains without legislative representation after the abrogation of Article 370 and reorganisation of Jammu & Kashmir in 2019.
Why Is Ladakh’s Demand for Representation a Major Constitutional Question?
Post-2019 Governance Shift: Ladakh became a Union Territory without a legislative assembly after the reorganisation of Jammu & Kashmir in 2019, creating a governance vacuum in political representation.
Constitutional Demand: Local groups have demanded Sixth Schedule protections, statehood, or legislative mechanisms to safeguard land, employment, culture, and local autonomy.
Democratic Deficit: Governance remains concentrated in bureaucratic institutions despite growing aspirations for elected representation.
Strategic Significance: Ladakh shares sensitive borders with China and Pakistan, making political legitimacy and local trust crucial for national security.
Sharp Institutional Contrast: While the Centre advocates administrative decentralisation through districts, local stakeholders seek constitutional and political decentralisation.
Can Administrative Decentralisation Substitute Democratic Representation?
Administrative Accessibility: Creation of five new districts, Nubra, Changthang, Sham, Zanskar and Drass, improves access to local administration in geographically difficult terrain.
Harsh Terrain Constraints: Ladakh spans nearly 59,000 sq km, with mountain barriers, harsh winters, and sparsely distributed settlements requiring local accessibility.
Functional Limitation of Districts: District administrations implement policies but cannot legislate on land rights, employment priorities, education, renewable energy governance, or cultural protection.
Political Accountability Gap: A district magistrate remains accountable upward to administrative superiors, whereas legislatures ensure accountability downward to citizens.
Democratic Agency: Administrative convenience cannot replace political voice in a representative democracy.
Why Is the “Population and Viability” Argument Against Representation in Ladakh Being Questioned?
The debate centres on whether low population, financial dependence, and difficult geography should limit Ladakh’s political representation. A key argument against a legislature is that Ladakh’s sparse population and dependence on the Centre make elected governance impractical. However, this view is contested because India has historically prioritised political inclusion and strategic integration over population size or economic viability, especially in sensitive border regions where representation strengthens trust and stability.
Democratic Equality Principle: India has not historically linked representation exclusively to population size or economic profitability. Several small or fiscally dependent regions have received legislative institutions to strengthen democratic participation.
Northeast Precedent:Nagaland (1963), Mizoram (1987), and Arunachal Pradesh (1987) received statehood despite sparse populations, difficult terrain, and heavy dependence on central transfers, reinforcing political integration in strategic frontier regions.
Strategic Imperative:Frontier populations contribute to national security through territorial presence, local intelligence, and social resilience. Political inclusion strengthens trust in border areas adjoining adversarial neighbours.
Fiscal Federalism Logic:Redistributive federalism under institutions such as the Finance Commission exists precisely because regions possess unequal economic capacities. Fiscal dependence has not been a constitutional ground for limiting political representation.
Governance versus Representation Distinction:Administrative decentralisation through districts may improve service delivery, but districts cannot legislate on land rights, employment safeguards, resource governance, or cultural protections, which require representative institutions.
Normative Constitutional Concern: The larger question is whether strategically vital citizens who bear frontier hardships should remain politically underrepresented despite their central role in safeguarding territorial integrity.
How Does the Northeast Challenge Arguments Against Ladakh’s Representation?
Arunachal Pradesh Example: Despite sparse population and strategic sensitivity near China, Arunachal Pradesh received statehood in 1987, reinforcing political integration.
Mizoram Example: Mizoram became a state in 1987 despite a relatively small population, demonstrating that representation was prioritised over demographic size.
Nagaland Example: Nagaland received statehood in 1963, despite limited population and fiscal dependence.
Security Through Inclusion: India historically integrated border regions through political accommodation rather than purely military or bureaucratic administration.
Belonging-Based Integration: Political participation strengthened trust and national integration in sensitive frontier regions.
Is Fiscal Dependence a Valid Reason to Deny Political Representation?
Redistributive Federalism: India’s fiscal system operates through redistribution via the Finance Commission, recognising unequal developmental capacities.
Example: Northeastern and Himalayan states receive higher per capita transfers due to difficult terrain and limited revenue bases.
Intergovernmental Transfers: Several states depend heavily on central transfers for governance and welfare expenditure.
Regional Disparity Reality: Mountainous terrain, sparse population, and strategic limitations naturally constrain revenue generation in border regions.
Developmental Equity: Fiscal dependence has never been an accepted constitutional basis for limiting democratic rights.
Example: Mizoram and Nagaland received statehood despite limited economic self-sufficiency.
Comparative Illustration: Even large states receive significant fiscal devolution despite differing revenue capacities.
Example: States such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar receive large transfers due to population and developmental criteria, though for different reasons.
Why Is Land Governance Emerging as the Core of Ladakh’s Anxiety?
Large-Scale Renewable Projects: Proposed renewable energy expansion in the Pang region of Changthang reportedly seeks access to nearly 13 GW of solar and renewable capacity.
Land Transformation Concerns: Approximately 50,000 hectares of land may be impacted, raising questions over ecological sustainability and local consent.
Economic Stakes: Investments nearing ₹50,000 crore and potential annual income of approximately ₹7,000 crore make land governance politically significant.
Representation Deficit: The article argues that decisions on land, royalties, sustainability, and livelihoods require locally accountable institutions.
How Is Ladakh’s Demand About Belonging Rather Than Separatism?
Constitutional Inclusion: The article frames Ladakh’s demand as a desire to belong more fully within India’s constitutional framework.
Political Trust: Greater representation strengthens legitimacy in border areas where citizens bear high strategic burdens.
Frontier Citizenship: Border communities often experience developmental and climatic hardships while contributing significantly to territorial security.
Democratic Principle: India’s strength lies in deepening participation rather than expanding administrative centralisation.
Conclusion
Ladakh’s demand highlights the broader challenge of balancing strategic administration with democratic representation in frontier regions. Administrative decentralisation may improve governance access, but it cannot substitute political voice, accountability, and local participation in decisions concerning land, resources, and identity. India’s experience in border regions suggests that durable integration is strengthened not merely through security and administration, but through constitutional inclusion and representative institutions.
