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  • Restoration work on temple in Goa island unearths relics from 14th to 16th century

    Restoration work on temple in Goa island unearths relics from 14th to 16th century

    Why in the News

    Restoration work at the old site of the Saptakoteshwar temple on Divar island in Goa has uncovered relics dated between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries.

    What was recovered, and where?

    1. A guardian motif: A Kirtimukh motif is among the finds, and its presence marks a formal temple entrance rather than an open air shrine.
    2. A structural element: A carved capital of a temple pillar was also recovered, which is the load bearing head of a column and part of a built temple rather than a portable object.
    3. The find spot: Both were recovered along the old pathway running between Koti Tirth and Madhavachi Talli.
    4. The dating: The relics and remains have been dated to between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries.

    Why do the finds change the reading of the site?

    1. Distribution carries the argument: The elements sit along a pathway, so it is their placement rather than the value of any single object that supports the inference.
    2. A complex rather than a shrine: Architectural members of this kind, found together, indicate a temple complex rather than one isolated structure.
    3. A sacred corridor: The alignment links the site’s water body with its associated structures into a processional route.
    4. The extent is revised: The understood extent of the island’s pre Portuguese temple landscape is now larger than the surviving remains indicated.

    Why does Saptakoteshwar matter in Goa’s religious history?

    1. A principal Shaiva site: Saptakoteshwar is counted among Goa’s principal Shaiva sites and its deity is a form of Shiva.
    2. Kadamba patronage: The Kadamba rulers of Goa held Saptakoteshwar as their tutelary deity, and the name appears on their coinage.
    3. Displacement in the Portuguese period: The Divar temple was destroyed in the sixteenth century, and the deity was moved off the island to Narve in Bicholim, which lay outside Portuguese control at the time.
    4. A later rebuilding: The temple at Narve was rebuilt in 1668 by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, and worship has continued at that site since.

    Challenges to protecting incidental archaeological finds

    1. Restoration is not excavation: Material surfacing during repair work is lifted without the layer by layer record that dates it and relates it to what lies around it. Eg. The Divar elements were recovered along a pathway during restoration rather than from a documented trench.
      The Fix: Require a licensed archaeologist to supervise any ground disturbance at a historic temple site, with layer wise recording completed before material is moved.
    2. Most sites carry no legal protection: Statutory protection attaches only to monuments notified under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 or a State equivalent, and everything else depends on local custody. Eg. The Archaeological Survey of India protects roughly 3,700 monuments, a small fraction of the country’s stock of historic sites.
      The Fix: Notify a newly evidenced site under the State protection list as soon as dated material is recovered, rather than waiting for an excavation to conclude.
    3. A living temple changes faster than it is recorded: A site in continuous worship is repaired and rebuilt by its own community, which removes earlier fabric in the process. Eg. Cement plaster and modern tiling at working shrines routinely cover older stone members.
      The Fix: Complete measured drawings and photographic documentation of a living temple before any restoration grant is released.
    4. Conservation capacity is thin: Trained conservators, epigraphists and conservation architects are few relative to the number of sites needing attention. Eg. State archaeology departments in the smaller States operate with a handful of technical posts.
      The Fix: Fund State conservation units jointly with university archaeology departments so field documentation has standing capacity behind it.

    Conclusion

    The value of these finds lies less in the objects than in the boundary they redraw around a site long assumed to end at its surviving shrine. Whether that reading holds depends on a systematic survey along the corridor rather than on further chance recovery during repair work. The step to watch is whether the pathway and its surroundings are brought under a protected category before restoration continues over them.

    Back2Basics: Kirtimukh

    1. What it is: Kirtimukh is a fierce swallowing face carved as an architectural motif, the name meaning face of glory.
    2. Where it is placed: It is set above temple doorways, over deity niches and at the apex of arches, as a guardian of the threshold.
    3. Its origin story: Puranic accounts describe a devouring being created by Shiva that consumes its own body at his command and is then placed at the entrance to be honoured first.
    4. Its reach: The motif runs across Hindu and Buddhist architecture in India and into Southeast Asia, so its presence signals a formal temple structure.

    [2018, GS1, 10 marks] Safeguarding the Indian art heritage is the need of the moment. Discuss.”

  • Inside Jharkhand & Bihar’s 25-year Sone river dispute

    Inside Jharkhand & Bihar’s 25-year Sone river dispute

    Why in the News

    Bihar and Jharkhand have signed an inter State memorandum of understanding dividing Sone river water, with 5.75 million acre feet (MAF, the volume that would cover a million acres to a depth of one foot) going to Bihar and 2 MAF to Jharkhand.

    Why did a 1973 allocation stop working after 2000?

    1. The river’s course: The Sone flows generally northward from its upper catchments in Madhya Pradesh, passes through Uttar Pradesh, runs along the Jharkhand Bihar boundary and joins the Ganga in Bihar.
    2. The original entitlement: The Bansagar Agreement of 1973, a tripartite agreement involving Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, allocated 7.75 MAF of Sone water to undivided Bihar out of the total basin yield.
    3. Bifurcation split the basin unevenly: Jharkhand inherited the major upper catchment areas and the tributaries, and the lower riparian agricultural hubs stayed with Bihar.
    4. No formula followed the division: After the State was divided, no binding formula existed to apportion that allocation between the two successor States.
    5. Two decades of stalled mediation: Committees attempted mediation over the last two decades, and talks repeatedly broke down over reservoir height, land submergence and volumetric splits.

    What does the new agreement actually settle?

    1. Jharkhand’s concession: Jharkhand agreed to specified reservoir water levels to minimise land submergence, backed by clear rehabilitation provisions.
    2. Bihar’s gain: Bihar receives additional water from the Indrapuri Barrage to irrigate farmland in its existing command.
    3. Jharkhand’s return: The pact enables new canal networks in the drought prone Palamu and Garhwa districts.
    4. What it unblocks: Long delayed irrigation, reservoir and river linking projects in the drought prone regions of both States are expected to move forward.

    What does the pact unlock on the ground?

    1. The diversion structure: The Indrapuri Barrage across the Sone in Rohtas district, built in the late 1960s, is the primary structure diverting water into the canal system.
    2. The canal command: The Sone canal network irrigates the Shahabad agricultural belt of Rohtas, Bhojpur, Buxar and Kaimur districts.
    3. The southern belt: The agreement guarantees critical irrigation supplies to the Magadh belt of south Bihar, including Aurangabad.
    4. The constraint was legal, not physical: The barrage and its canals already existed, so what was holding back their full use was the missing share rather than any limit of the structure.

    Why did the dispute stay politically live?

    1. No formal confrontation: The two States never reached a major State level confrontation over the water.
    2. An election season issue in Bihar: Leaders across party lines in the Shahabad and Magadh belts targeted the State government over water shortages in the Sone canal system during the summer sowing season.
    3. A displacement issue in Jharkhand: Leaders from Palamu and Garhwa raised the fear that raising the Indrapuri Dam’s height would submerge agricultural land and displace thousands without fair compensation.

    Challenges to the Sone water sharing arrangement

    1. A memorandum is not an award: The States have signed an administrative understanding rather than obtained a tribunal award under the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956, so no adjudicated instrument stands behind it. Eg. The Punjab Termination of Agreements Act, 2004 showed that a State legislature can move to repudiate water sharing agreements it had signed.
      The Fix: Constitute a joint control board with gauged and publicly reported releases at the barrage, so compliance is a matter of record rather than of assertion.
    2. A fixed volumetric split against a variable yield: The shares are stated in absolute volume even though the Sone is rain fed and its annual yield swings with the monsoon. Eg. The parent entitlement was itself fixed on basin yield estimates made in the early 1970s.
      The Fix: Convert the split into proportional shares of the actual annual yield, with a stated rule for how a deficit year is shared.
    3. Canal efficiency decides who receives water: An allocation at the barrage does not survive conveyance losses, so tail end farmers get less than the head reach whatever the agreement says. Eg. The Sone canal system dates from the 1870s and still delivers through long unlined earthen channels.
      The Fix: Line and modernise the main and distributary canals and meter deliveries at outlet level before the new water is credited to the command area.
    4. Rehabilitation commitments outrun delivery: Submergence limits rest on rehabilitation provisions whose record in Indian reservoir projects is poor. Eg. Families displaced by the Sardar Sarovar project on the Narmada were still contesting resettlement decades after the dam was cleared.
      The Fix: Publish a dated rehabilitation schedule with land for land entitlements settled before reservoir levels are raised.
    5. Groundwater has filled the gap: Farmers in the command have substituted diesel pumped groundwater for unreliable canal supply, and the pact says nothing about that substitution. Eg. Water tables across south Bihar fall sharply in the summer months when canal supply is weakest.
      The Fix: Sequence canal restoration with conjunctive use planning so surface deliveries replace pumping instead of adding to it.

    Conclusion

    An administrative understanding has closed a gap that two decades of mediation could not, and it has done so without creating any body able to enforce it. Compliance now rests on the continued willingness of two State governments, which is the same condition under which the previous arrangement failed. The marker to watch is whether releases are gauged and published, since an unmeasured share is what allows a settled formula to unravel quietly.

    Back2Basics: Sone river

    1. Source and course: The Sone rises on the Amarkantak plateau in Madhya Pradesh, close to the source of the Narmada, and flows north east to meet the Ganga.
    2. Its rank: It is the second largest of the Ganga’s southern tributaries after the Yamuna.
    3. Its regime: The river is rain fed, so it carries heavy monsoon flow and shrinks sharply through the dry season.
    4. Its tributaries: The North Koel, the Rihand and the Kanhar are among its principal tributaries.

    [2024, GS3, 15 marks] What are the major challenges faced by Indian irrigation system in recent times? State the measures taken by the government for efficient irrigation management.

  • WMO warns of ‘very’ strong El Nino, to last until February 2027

    WMO warns of ‘very’ strong El Nino, to last until February 2027

    Why in the News

    The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has warned of an impending very strong El Nino that is expected to strengthen and last until February 2027. Its Secretary General stated that El Nino is firmly established and has the potential to deliver a massive blow to communities and economies across the world.

    How does El Nino work?

    1. The mechanism: El Nino is a periodic warming of sea surface temperatures in the equatorial and eastern Pacific Ocean, caused by a weakening of the trade winds.
    2. Why it travels: The warming moves the region where heat and moisture rise into the atmosphere, which alters temperature and rainfall patterns far from the Pacific.
    3. Its rhythm: The phenomenon recurs every two to seven years and a single event lasts up to about twelve months.
    4. What it produces: It is known to trigger heatwaves, wet spells and extreme temperatures.

    How strong is this event, and how is that graded?

    1. The index used: Intensity is determined by the sea surface temperature averaged over three months in the Nino 3.4 region along the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
    2. The readings so far: The index surpassed 1.5 degrees Celsius above normal during May to July and crossed 2 degrees Celsius above normal in July.
    3. The persistence forecast: The likelihood of El Nino continuing through February 2027 is put at close to 100 percent, the first time the agency has forecast an event at that degree of certainty.
    4. A possible record: Exceptionally warm Pacific temperatures make this potentially the strongest El Nino since monitoring began.

    What does it mean for India this season?

    1. The monsoon largely escaped: The India Meteorological Department (IMD) confirmed that rainfall in the later half of August came under the influence of the developing El Nino. With three fourths of the season over, the monsoon has largely escaped it.
    2. A countervailing signal: A positive phase of the Indian Ocean Dipole is expected to develop during September to November, with a seasonal mean value of 0.9 degrees Celsius.
    3. Why the offset matters: A positive Dipole strengthens rainfall over the Indian region and can therefore work against El Nino’s drying influence.
    4. The offset is not assured: The Dipole swung briefly towards the positive phase in late August and then returned to neutral.

    What is the WMO doing about it?

    1. A mobilisation without precedent in the agency: The Secretary General described this as the largest mobilisation with National Meteorological and Hydrological Services in the WMO’s fifty year history.
    2. Why those agencies: National meteorological services are the bodies that convert a global seasonal outlook into forecasts and warnings people can act on.
    3. Impacts are already visible: Droughts and floods are already causing disruption, and the agency expects these to intensify as the event strengthens.
    4. The recent record: Europe recorded one of its hottest summers in recent decades this year, and August brought record temperatures in many parts of the globe.

    Challenges to acting on an El Nino warning

    1. A seasonal outlook is not a local forecast: El Nino shifts the odds of dry conditions across a season and cannot say what a particular district receives in a particular week. Eg. The 2023 monsoon closed about 6 percent below normal for India as a whole, and several subdivisions still recorded surplus rain.
      The Fix: Issue impact based forecasts at district level that translate the seasonal outlook into expected effects on sowing dates, reservoir filling and power demand.
    2. The Indian Ocean modifies the Pacific signal: El Nino’s effect on the Indian monsoon depends on the state of the Indian Ocean, so an El Nino year is not automatically a drought year. Eg. The 1997 event was among the strongest recorded and the Indian monsoon that year was normal.
      The Fix: Publish the El Nino and Dipole outlooks as one combined regional signal rather than as two separate advisories a user has to reconcile.
    3. Warnings stop short of the last mile: Early warning coverage remains uneven for small farmers and fishing communities who cannot act on a technical bulletin. Eg. The United Nations Early Warnings for All initiative exists because a large share of the world’s population is still not covered by any early warning system.
      The Fix: Route advisories through State agriculture extension and fisheries departments in local languages, tied to one specific recommended action.
    4. Reservoirs are operated on inflows, not on forecasts: Storage decisions respond to water already received, so a deficit is managed only after it has appeared. Eg. Southern region reservoirs stood far below their ten year average through the summer of 2024, after the previous year’s deficient monsoon.
      The Fix: Write seasonal forecasts into reservoir rule curves so storage is conserved in advance of a forecast dry season.
    5. The consequences outlast the monsoon: El Nino affects the rabi season and global crops, so the exposure continues well after the Indian monsoon withdraws. Eg. India restricted rice exports during the 2023 El Nino year on domestic supply concerns.
      The Fix: Set buffer stock and import cover decisions against the forecast horizon rather than against the harvest just completed.

    Conclusion

    The forecast has settled the question of whether the event arrives and left open only what is done before it peaks. India’s monsoon has escaped this season, so the exposure shifts to the rabi crop, to reservoir storage and to the summer that follows. The marker to watch is whether the Indian Ocean Dipole holds its positive phase long enough to blunt the Pacific signal over the region.

    Back2Basics: Indian Ocean Dipole

    1. What it is: The Indian Ocean Dipole is the difference in sea surface temperature between the western and the eastern parts of the tropical Indian Ocean.
    2. Positive phase: The western Indian Ocean is warmer than the eastern part near Indonesia, which favours stronger rainfall over the Indian subcontinent and East Africa.
    3. Negative phase: The eastern part is warmer, which suppresses rainfall over India and shifts it towards Indonesia and Australia.
    4. How it is tracked: It is measured as the Dipole Mode Index, the temperature gradient between the two poles of the ocean.

    [2017] With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. IOD phenomenon is characterized by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.

    2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • New Delhi to quantify ocean wealth, climate risks in new accounting push

    New Delhi to quantify ocean wealth, climate risks in new accounting push

    Why in the News

    The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has issued a concept paper proposing to put a monetary value on India’s marine fish stocks and record them as a national asset.

    What is the System of Environmental Economic Accounting?

    1. About: SEEA is a United Nations statistical framework that records a country’s natural resources inside the same accounting structure used for its economy.
    2. The core idea: A natural resource is treated as a capital asset, and what is taken from it in a year is treated as a flow of economic benefit from that asset.
    3. Coverage in India: India has compiled environmental accounts since 2018 through the EnviStats India programme, covering assets such as land, water, forests, minerals and pollination.

    What do India’s current fisheries figures capture?

    1. Global standing: India is the world’s second largest fish producing country and accounts for 8 percent of global production.
    2. The inland and marine split: Total fish production in FY25 was 19.77 million metric tonnes, 77 percent of it from inland sources and 23 percent from the marine sector.
    3. Marine output has expanded: Marine fish production reached 46.15 lakh tonnes in 2024-25, against 34.43 lakh tonnes in 2013-14.
    4. Contribution to the economy: The sector contributed an estimated Rs 1.76 lakh crore in 2023-24, or 1.09 percent of national gross value added.
    5. Export volume and value: Marine product exports in FY25 were 1.7 million metric tonnes valued at Rs 62,408.45 crore, growing 3.11 percent a year in volume.
    6. Reach of the export basket: More than 350 varieties, including frozen fish, squid, cuttlefish and dried items, reach 130 international markets.

    Why do those figures not answer the sustainability question?

    1. Output says nothing about the stock: Aggregate production records how much was landed, not whether commercially important stocks can sustain similar production in future.
    2. Species and regions vanish into the total: A national tonnage figure hides the changing value of individual species and the condition of regional fish stocks.
    3. Fishing pressure leaves no trace: The long term effect of fishing pressure and environmental change does not register in an annual catch series.
    4. No blue economy series exists: India has no regular, comprehensive blue economy GDP series comparable with the series available for agriculture or manufacturing.
    5. Known potential carries a known risk: NITI Aayog puts the exclusive economic zone’s resource potential at about 7.16 million metric tonnes and warns that some deep sea resources are vulnerable to overexploitation.

    How far has this been attempted elsewhere?

    1. Only a handful of countries: The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) notes that only a handful of countries currently compile monetary asset accounts for aquatic resources.
    2. The group India would join: Australia, the Netherlands, Norway, Canada, the United Kingdom, France, the United States and New Zealand are attempting to bring blue natural capital into national accounts.
    3. The contrast with land based assets: Valuation methods for forests and minerals are mature, and the aquatic equivalent remains at an experimental and pilot stage.
    4. The international guidance is dated: The SEEA-Fisheries conceptual guidance is outdated, so India is building on an incomplete standard rather than a settled one.

    How would a marine fish asset account be built?

    1. Define the accounting units: The first step selects the commercially, economically or ecologically important marine species the account will cover.
    2. Classify each stock: Species wise landing data for the preceding ten years serves as the initial proxy, and current landings are compared with historical peaks to mark a stock as regenerating, stable or depleting.
    3. Estimate the asset life: Each resource is assigned an asset life, which is the bridge between the fisheries science on the stock and its economic treatment.
    4. Calculate the resource rent: Resource rent is the income attributable to the natural resource after deducting labour, operating expenses, depreciation and a normal return on fishing vessels and other capital.
    5. Discount the future rents: Expected future resource rents are projected over the estimated asset life and discounted at a proposed 2 percent real rate to give a present value.
    6. The output: The result is a marine fish asset account, a statistical record carrying both the physical condition of a stock and its estimated economic value.

    What is riding on the outcome?

    1. Livelihoods: Fishing supports nearly 30 million livelihoods and is a cornerstone of the blue economy.
    2. Geography: India’s coastline runs about 11,100 km and carries rich marine biodiversity.
    3. The stated target: Available numbers put the blue economy at about 4 percent of GDP against a target of a $100 billion blue economy by 2030.
    4. Budget support: The latest Union Budget earmarked a record Rs 2,761.8 crore in total annual support, with the Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) carrying Rs 2,500 crore in 2026-27.
    5. Competing claims on sea space: Fisheries compete with ports, tourism, offshore energy and coastal development for marine space. Integrated accounts give those trade offs one economic and environmental database.
    6. Investment decisions: A valuation would indicate whether to put money into additional fishing capacity, stock restoration or deep sea fisheries. It would also allow the economic cost of climate induced changes in marine resources to be estimated.

    Challenges to valuing marine fish stocks

    1. The asset is living and mobile: A fish stock changes in size and location continuously, which makes it harder to value at a point in time than a forest or a mineral deposit. Eg. Oil sardine landings along the Kerala coast collapsed through the 2010s and then partially recovered, moving the stock’s value within a single decade.
      The Fix: Anchor the account to periodic scientific biomass surveys by the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute rather than to landing data alone.
    2. Landings measure effort as much as abundance: What boats bring ashore reflects fleet capacity, fuel prices and market demand alongside the size of the stock. Eg. Landings can rise as vessels mechanise and trips lengthen even as the underlying stock thins.
      The Fix: Report effort adjusted catch per unit effort alongside raw landings, so a rise in output is separated from a rise in fishing pressure.
    3. The discount rate decides the answer: A present value calculation is highly sensitive to the rate chosen, so the 2 percent assumption fixes how much weight future stocks carry. Eg. A higher rate values a stock mainly by what it yields in the next few years and makes long term depletion look cheap.
      The Fix: Publish the account across a range of discount rates so the valuation’s dependence on that single assumption is visible to the user.
    4. An account does not restrain a catch: Recording depletion changes no rule about who may fish, since marine fishing within territorial waters is regulated by coastal States under their own legislation. Eg. Monsoon fishing bans and mesh size rules are notified State by State along the coastline.
      The Fix: Require stock classifications from the account to feed directly into the fisheries management plans and catch limits of coastal States.

    Conclusion

    Valuing a fish stock changes what the national accounts can show, not what the fishing fleet is allowed to take. The account will report depletion only as accurately as the biological data underneath it, and that data is the weakest part of the exercise. The test is whether the numbers reach harvesting rules and coastal livelihood decisions rather than stopping at a statistical publication.

    Back2Basics: Exclusive Economic Zone

    1. Legal basis: The exclusive economic zone is established by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982.
    2. Extent: It reaches up to 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the territorial sea is measured.
    3. Rights it confers: The coastal State holds sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve and manage the living and non living resources of the zone.
    4. India’s zone: India’s exclusive economic zone covers over 2 million square km, which is larger than its land area.

    [2026] At the United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC) held in June, 2025 in France, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations demonstrated its leading voice on marine and ocean issues, especially on sustainable fisheries and aquaculture for resilient livelihood and ‘Blue Transformation’. Which of the following combinations about the ‘Four Betters’ proposed by FAO for ‘Blue Transformation’ is correct?

    (a) Better production, better nutrition, better environment and better ocean

    (b) Better production, better nutrition, better environment and better life

    (c) Better coral reefs, better nutrition, better environment and better life

    (d) Better estuaries, better nutrition, better environment and better mangrove vegetation

  • Air quality panel holding talks with Punjab govt. and ISRO over tracking of stubble fires

    Air quality panel holding talks with Punjab govt. and ISRO over tracking of stubble fires

    Why in the News

    The Commission for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas (CAQM), the statutory body that directs anti-pollution action across Delhi and the States around it, has said it is in talks with Punjab, Haryana and the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) to improve how stubble fires are measured.

    How does satellite fire counting work?

    1. Detection by heat signature: Two satellites passing over India during the day register the thermal signature of an active fire and log it as a fire count.
    2. A fixed overpass window: A polar orbiting satellite crosses a given location at roughly the same local time each day, so it sees only the fires burning at that moment.
    3. A count is not a quantity: The record shows that a field was alight. It does not show how much particulate matter the burning released.

    Why has the reported decline in farm fires come under doubt?

    1. The peak moved by three and a half hours: The Space Applications Centre recorded peak fire activity at about 1.30 p.m. in 2020 and at about 5 p.m. in 2024.
    2. The shift tracks the enforcement window: Farmers face fines for being caught setting fire to their fields, and burning after the daytime satellite passes leaves no entry in the record.
    3. Evidence has accumulated since 2024: Doubt over the Punjab government’s claim of a 90 percent reduction in farm fires since 2021 has been mounting since 2024.
    4. A decline that may be an artefact: A fall produced by unrecorded burning leaves the actual acreage burnt unknown, so the reported improvement cannot be checked.

    Why does the measurement matter for the capital’s winter air?

    1. Farm fires are a spike, not the base load: Over a whole winter farm fires contribute no more than 15 percent of particulate matter pollution. In certain weeks that share rises to almost 44 percent.
    2. The weather closes the escape route: Stalled monsoon withdrawal weakens the westerly winds that flush particulate matter out of the region through October and November.
    3. Several sources load the same air: Vehicles, industry, road dust, agricultural waste and Deepavali crackers add to the load in the same weeks.
    4. Paddy residue has a disposal logic: Stubble left after the paddy harvest is burnt to clear the field for wheat sowing, since burning is the quickest and cheapest method available.
    5. The response is calibrated to the number: The winter air quality response for the Delhi National Capital Region is built on this dataset, so a wrong count misdirects the measures taken.

    Why is a replacement protocol difficult to define?

    1. Burnt area measures land, not emissions: Mapping singed acreage gives a better estimate of how much land was burnt. The CAQM Chairman noted it is still not an accurate measure of the particulate matter emitted.
    2. Ground truthing needs the States: Verification on the ground requires Punjab and Haryana to run field checks against the satellite record, which is what the Commission is negotiating with both.
    3. A first protocol has been sought this year: ISRO has been asked to supply a basic protocol this year so that the estimate improves on fire counts.

    Challenges to stubble fire measurement

    1. A single daytime overpass: One pass at a fixed hour cannot capture a fire lit after it. Eg. The Terra and Aqua satellites carrying the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) cross northwest India around the middle of the day.
      The Fix: Pair the polar orbiting record with geostationary imaging from INSAT-3D and INSAT-3DR, which observe the same area every fifteen minutes, and with night time detections from the Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite.
    2. Cloud and haze block an optical sensor: Smoke and cloud hide active fires at exactly the point in the season when burning peaks. Eg. Detection weakens during the late October haze episodes that trigger emergency curbs in the capital.
      The Fix: Add radar based burnt area mapping from Sentinel-1, which images through cloud, as an independent cross check on the count.
    3. Penalties fall on the cultivator, not on the residue: Environmental compensation and red entries in land records punish the act of burning without funding an alternative to it. Eg. Punjab has recovered environmental compensation from farmers recorded as burning paddy stubble.
      The Fix: Pay a verified per acre amount for residue actually managed, so the incentive attaches to disposal rather than to concealment.
    4. The window between two crops is too short: Roughly two to three weeks separate the paddy harvest from wheat sowing, which makes burning the only method that fits. Eg. The Punjab Preservation of Subsoil Water Act, 2009 pushes paddy transplanting into late June and shortens the gap at the other end.
      The Fix: Expand shorter duration paddy varieties such as PR-126 and guarantee machinery through custom hiring centres so the window becomes workable.
    5. The airshed is governed in pieces: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Delhi each report and act separately on pollution that is common to one airshed. Eg. The Graded Response Action Plan is triggered by the air quality index recorded in Delhi.
      The Fix: Build one airshed level emission inventory on a common reporting standard, so source shares are settled by an agreed method rather than disputed each winter.

    Conclusion

    The argument here is not about whether stubble is burnt but about whether the instrument that counts it still works. A performance claim measured by a tool that a farmer can time his way around cannot settle how much of the capital’s winter air the fields are answerable for. The marker to watch is whether a verification protocol is in place before the burning window opens rather than after it closes.

    Back2Basics: Commission for Air Quality Management

    1. Statutory basis: The Commission was established under the Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021.
    2. Jurisdiction: It covers Delhi and the adjoining areas of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh that affect the capital’s air quality.
    3. Powers: It issues directions binding on State governments and State pollution control boards, and its directions prevail where they conflict with a State board’s.
    4. Enforcement: Non-compliance with its directions is punishable with imprisonment of up to five years or a fine of up to one crore rupees.

    [2020, GS3, 15 marks] What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) initiated by the Government of India?

  • Govt. to spend Rs 24,000 crore to modernise police force

    Govt. to spend Rs 24,000 crore to modernise police force

    Why in the News

    The Union government has told the Supreme Court that it has begun implementing an umbrella Police Modernisation Mission worth Rs 24,000 crore over the next five years.

    What is the Police Modernisation Mission?

    1. Its form: It is an umbrella scheme, meaning several police modernisation components are funded through a single mission rather than as separate schemes.
    2. Its size and horizon: The outlay is Rs 24,000 crore, to be spent over five years.
    3. Who it covers: It targets the internal security capabilities of both State police forces and the Central Armed Police Forces.
    4. Its stated route: The capability gain is to come through greater use of technology, which is the only delivery mechanism named in the submission.

    Why was the disclosure made in a court proceeding?

    1. The proceeding was begun by the Court itself: The suo motu case was initiated in 2025 after the Court took note of a media report on non functional CCTV cameras at Udaipur police stations.
    2. The Court widened it into a compliance review: It sought compliance reports from the Centre, the States and the Union Territories on the installation and functioning of cameras.
    3. The Bench: The matter is before a Bench of Justices Vikram Nath and Sandeep Mehta, with the Centre represented by an Additional Solicitor-General.
    4. The mission answers the compliance question with an outlay: The Centre’s response to a record of equipment not working is a larger programme to buy equipment, and no separate maintenance or functioning guarantee was placed before the Court.

    What did Paramvir Singh Saini versus Baljit Singh require?

    1. Cameras at specified locations: The 2021 judgment mandated CCTV cameras at key locations in police stations, including lock ups and the rooms of inspectors and sub-inspectors.
    2. Cameras of a specified capability: The directions required night vision and audio recording, so that an interrogation is recorded and not merely observed.
    3. Footage retention: Recordings were to be preserved for a stated minimum period, so that a complaint filed months later can still be tested against the record.
    4. Oversight bodies: State level and district level oversight committees were to be constituted to purchase, maintain and monitor the systems and to review footage.
    5. Notice to the public: Police stations were to display notices telling visitors that the premises are under camera cover and that a complaint of human rights violation may be made.

    Challenges to the Police Modernisation Mission

    1. Modernisation money has historically gone unspent: Releases under police modernisation schemes stall on State matching shares and pending utilisation certificates. Eg. Successive Comptroller and Auditor General audits have flagged underutilisation of police modernisation grants by States.
      The Fix: Release tranches against verified physical milestones, meaning equipment installed and functioning, rather than against expenditure statements.
    2. Central money buys equipment, not reform: Police is a State subject under Entry 2 of the State List, so a central mission can fund hardware without touching recruitment, tenure or accountability. Eg. Directions in Prakash Singh versus Union of India (2006) on fixed tenure and a State Security Commission remain only partly implemented across States.
      The Fix: Condition a share of each State’s mission grant on enactment of the police board and fixed tenure directions.
    3. Technology fails at the point of maintenance: Installed systems stop working for want of annual maintenance contracts, spares and power backup, and the capital grant does not cover them. Eg. Audits have found Crime and Criminal Tracking Network and Systems terminals installed but not in use at a large number of police stations.
      The Fix: Fund a five year maintenance and consumables line inside each equipment sanction, instead of leaving it as a separate State liability.
    4. Manpower shortfall caps what technology can deliver: A camera or a database still needs an officer to operate, review and act on it, and State forces run well below sanctioned strength. Eg. Bureau of Police Research and Development data records an actual police strength close to 150 personnel per lakh population, against the United Nations recommended figure of 222.
      The Fix: Tie mission approval to a State recruitment schedule closing sanctioned vacancies across the same five years.
    5. Surveillance capacity grows faster than the oversight around it: Equipment installed for accountability also expands the force’s own recording and identification capability, with no independent auditor of its use. Eg. Access logs for police station footage are held and reviewed by the same force whose conduct the footage records.
      The Fix: Place footage access logs and retention compliance under an independent State level oversight body publishing an annual report.

    Conclusion

    The mission has moved from announcement to implementation, and it was disclosed in a proceeding about equipment already mandated and not functioning. Buying capability and sustaining it are different problems, and only the first has an outlay attached to it. The next point to watch is the compliance reports the Court has sought from the Centre, the States and the Union Territories, which is where the gap between equipment sanctioned and equipment working becomes visible.

    Back2Basics: Central Armed Police Forces

    1. What they are: Seven armed forces of the Union under the Ministry of Home Affairs, distinct both from the armed forces under the Ministry of Defence and from State police.
    2. The seven forces: Central Reserve Police Force, Border Security Force, Central Industrial Security Force, Indo-Tibetan Border Police, Sashastra Seema Bal, Assam Rifles and the National Security Guard.
    3. How they are used: They are deployed to States on requisition for internal security duty, election duty and disaster response, and guard specified international border sectors.
    4. Command and recruitment: Each is headed by a Director General, with officer recruitment through the Union Public Service Commission and other ranks through the Staff Selection Commission.

    [2023, GS3, 15 marks] What are the internal security challenges being faced by India? Give out the role of Central Intelligence and Investigative Agencies tasked to counter such threats.

  • Rajnath releases new framework for defence diplomacy

    Rajnath releases new framework for defence diplomacy

    Why in the News

    The Defence Minister has released Raksha, a strategic framework setting out India’s road map for defence diplomacy and global defence partnerships over the next ten years.

    Pillars of the Raksha framework

    1. Bilateral and multilateral defence partnerships: Deepening defence relationships with individual states and within groupings is the first stated pillar.
    2. Joint military exercises: The framework provides for expanding the scale and range of joint exercises with partner forces.
    3. Capacity building with friendly countries: Training and capability assistance to partner militaries is treated as a distinct instrument rather than a by-product of exercises.
    4. Indigenous defence exports and maritime security: Promoting exports of indigenously developed systems under Make in India, and strengthening maritime security, complete the set of pillars.

    How does the framework use defence exports as a diplomatic instrument?

    1. The industrial objective is tied to the diplomatic one: Export promotion is placed inside a diplomacy document, so a sale is treated as a partnership rather than as a transaction.
    2. The positioning sought: The framework seeks to establish India as a reliable global defence manufacturing partner.
    3. The route named: International cooperation is to be expanded around indigenously developed defence technologies, rather than around licensed or assembled platforms.

    What does the net security provider role commit India to?

    1. A first responder duty: The framework places India as a net security provider and first responder in the Indian Ocean Region, which requires capacity to act before a partner state formally requests help.
    2. A stated regional commitment: The road map records a commitment to ensuring peace, stability and security across the region.
    3. Maritime security as the operating theatre: The Indian Ocean Region framing makes the maritime domain the principal arena in which the other pillars are exercised.
    4. A decade long planning horizon: A ten year design replaces case by case engagement, which changes what can be promised to a partner and over what period.

    Challenges to India’s defence diplomacy

    1. Exports remain concentrated in low value items: Much of India’s defence export value is components and subsystems supplied to foreign manufacturers rather than complete platforms. Eg. Aerostructures, forgings and subsystems account for a substantial share of the export figure India reports each year.
      The Fix: Set platform level export targets by category in the framework’s review, reported separately from the aggregate value.
    2. Capacity building commitments outrun training capacity: Offering training slots to partner militaries requires physical capacity at Indian institutions, which is finite and allotted well in advance. Eg. Foreign officer vacancies at Indian staff and war colleges are limited and booked years ahead.
      The Fix: Fund dedicated foreign trainee capacity at named institutions inside the framework, rather than from existing service training budgets.
    3. First responder assets are committed elsewhere: The same ships and aircraft carry out relief, escort and patrol tasking in overlapping waters. Eg. Naval units deployed for anti piracy escort in the western Indian Ocean are the units nearest to most regional relief tasks.
      The Fix: Ring fence a standing humanitarian assistance and disaster relief task group with pre positioned stores in the region.
    4. Export promotion collides with partner sensitivities: A sale to one regional state can strain relations with its rival, which turns a commercial decision into a political one. Eg. India’s supply of BrahMos missiles to the Philippines drew objections from China.
      The Fix: Publish a case by case political clearance process for defence exports, so industry can price the risk of refusal before bidding.
    5. A framework document carries no reporting duty: A ten year horizon with no interim review point cannot be tested against performance at any stage before it ends. Eg. The document states pillars without naming an annual reporting mechanism against them.
      The Fix: Fix a mandatory annual report against each pillar, carrying indicators for exercises held, officers trained and export value.

    Conclusion

    Defence diplomacy has been run through individual visits, exercises and agreements decided one at a time. A published decade long framework changes the planning horizon and states the objective, and it does not by itself create an institution to execute it. The marker to watch is whether the framework acquires a named owner and an annual review reporting against each pillar, or remains a statement of direction.

    Back2Basics: Net security provider

    1. What the term means: A state that supplies security to others in its region, rather than only securing itself, through presence, capability and assistance extended to partner states.
    2. How India uses it: The formulation entered Indian strategic vocabulary around 2009 and is applied to the Indian Ocean Region, where India’s navy is the largest resident force.
    3. What it involves in practice: Anti piracy patrols, humanitarian assistance and disaster relief, evacuation of nationals, hydrographic survey support and maritime domain awareness shared with partner states.
    4. The policy vehicles: The Security and Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) vision, the Indian Ocean Naval Symposium, and coastal radar chains built for partner countries.

    [2025, GS3, 15 marks] Why is maritime security vital to protect India’s sea trade? Discuss maritime and coastal security challenges and the way forward.”

  • India and Belgium ramp up bilateral defence cooperation

    India and Belgium ramp up bilateral defence cooperation

    Why in the News

    India and Belgium have signed three government level defence agreements, ramping up a defence relationship that had carried no framework instrument.

    What was signed at the government level?

    1. A Letter of Intent on Defence Cooperation: Signed by the two defence ministries, it covers training, officer exchanges, research and development, seminars, joint exercises and maritime security.
    2. An industry to industry Memorandum of Understanding (MoU): It links the Belgian Security and Defence Industry association with the Society of Indian Defence Manufacturers.
    3. A law enforcement MoU: The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) and the Belgium Federal Police agreed to cooperate on transnational organised crime, cybercrime and related matters.

    Which capability areas does the defence cooperation target?

    1. Maritime and undersea systems: Mine countermeasures, autonomous maritime systems, underwater robotics and sensors are named focus areas.
    2. Critical infrastructure protection: The list extends to protection of ports, pipelines and subsea data cables.
    3. Conventional and emerging systems: Ammunition, radar, electro optical sensors, command and control, and counter drone systems are covered.
    4. The engagement machinery: The two Defence Ministers agreed to expand contact through a defence cooperation dialogue, high level visits, training and capacity building, and acknowledged the need for greater maritime security collaboration in the Indo-Pacific.

    What was announced alongside the signed instruments?

    1. A resident defence presence in Brussels: India announced the appointment of a Defence Attache at its Embassy in Brussels.
    2. A trade and investment channel: A fast trade mechanism was established to handle trade and investment, alongside a commitment to double bilateral trade over the next five years.
    3. A Consular Dialogue: A standing consular channel was established between New Delhi and Brussels.
    4. Private sector agreements: At least ten private defence agreements were sealed during the visit, including production of Belgian military items such as rockets in India.

    Where does the economic relationship currently stand?

    1. Merchandise trade: Bilateral trade stood at $13.01 billion in 2025-26.
    2. Investment: Belgian foreign direct investment into India was about $4.2 billion between April 2000 and December 2025.
    3. The Belgian trade position: The Belgian side described the global situation as turbulent and called for free trade and an end to the unilateral imposition of tariffs.

    What did the two sides agree on regional and global security?

    1. The Pakistan assurance: India raised concerns over Belgian defence technology or expertise reaching Pakistan, and received an assurance that there is no question of such cooperation.
    2. Terrorism: The Belgian side supported India’s campaign against cross border terrorism and condemned the Pahalgam terror attack.
    3. Maritime routes: The joint statement called for the safety and security of maritime routes and for safe and unimpeded maritime shipping, in the context of the conflicts in West Asia and Ukraine.
    4. Conflict resolution: Both sides supported efforts aimed at an early end to the conflicts in Ukraine and West Asia, and backed a just peace in Ukraine consistent with the United Nations Charter.
    5. A shared historical marker: The two leaders paid tribute to the more than 9,000 Indian soldiers who died at Flanders Fields during the First World War.

    Challenges to India Belgium defence cooperation

    1. A Letter of Intent creates no obligation: It records agreed areas of work and binds neither side to a contract, a value or a timeline. Eg. India’s defence industrial roadmaps with European partners have taken years to convert into signed production contracts.
      The Fix: Attach a dated work plan with a named nodal agency on each side, reviewed at every defence cooperation dialogue.
    2. Export clearance does not sit with the federal government alone: Belgian arms export licences are issued at regional government level and operate under the European Union common position on arms exports. Eg. Flanders and Wallonia license equipment produced in their own regions separately.
      The Fix: Negotiate a programme level licence assurance at the time of contract, instead of clearance obtained shipment by shipment.
    3. Joint production usually stops at final assembly: Technology transfer in Indian defence tie ups has historically covered assembly rather than the propellant, seeker or sensor core. Eg. Several ammunition and rocket partnerships have delivered kits assembled in India from imported subsystems.
      The Fix: Write a phased indigenous content schedule into each private agreement, measured at component level rather than by value.
    4. A political assurance is not a contractual clause: An undertaking on third country transfers given in a bilateral meeting is not enforceable in any signed instrument. Eg. The assurance on Pakistan was conveyed through officials rather than recorded as a treaty obligation.
      The Fix: Convert the undertaking into an end use and non transfer clause in every follow on agreement signed under the Letter of Intent.
    5. The trade base is narrow: The exchange is dominated by a single commodity group, so a doubling target rests on a thin sectoral spread. Eg. Antwerp’s diamond trade accounts for the bulk of India Belgium merchandise flows.
      The Fix: Set named non gem sectoral milestones under the fast trade mechanism, so the target is measured outside the diamond trade.

    Conclusion

    A relationship built largely on trade has acquired a defence framework in the space of a single visit. What has been signed is intent, an industry linkage and a police cooperation channel, and the substance now depends on what follows them. Two things are worth watching: whether the private production agreements reach contract, and whether the trade target is pursued in sectors outside the commodity group that currently dominates the exchange.

    Back2Basics: Society of Indian Defence Manufacturers

    1. What it is: The apex industry body representing Indian defence manufacturers, which acts as the single interface between the domestic defence industry and the Ministry of Defence.
    2. Origin: It was set up in 2017, promoted by the Confederation of Indian Industry.
    3. Membership: It spans defence public sector undertakings, large private manufacturers and micro, small and medium enterprises in the defence supply chain.
    4. What it does: It signs cooperation agreements with counterpart industry associations abroad, and represents industry positions on procurement policy and indigenisation.

    [2023, GS2, 15 marks] ‘The expansion and strengthening of NATO and a stronger US-Europe strategic partnership works well in India.’ What is your opinion about this statement? Give reasons and examples to support your answer.

  • US settlement with Meta is a start. India must protect itself

    US settlement with Meta is a start. India must protect itself

    Why in the News

    Meta has agreed to pay up to $17.1 billion to resolve child harm claims brought by a bipartisan coalition of attorneys general across the United States, its territories and the District of Columbia.

    What does the settlement require Meta to do?

    1. The scale and the date: The agreement was reached on 26 August and ranks among the largest consumer protection settlements in internet history.
    2. Default time limits and night restrictions: Users under 18 get default limits on time spent and restrictions on night time use.
    3. Limits on notifications during school hours: The company must curb notifications sent to minors while school is in session.
    4. Age assurance: The settlement requires enhanced measures to establish whether a user is a minor before the account is treated as an adult account.
    5. Independent compliance oversight: Compliance with the safeguards is monitored by an independent party rather than reported by the company itself.

    Why does the penalty carry little punitive weight?

    1. The sum is small against the revenue base: The company generated $201 billion in revenue in 2025, and the settlement is payable over 10 years.
    2. The market read it as a cost, not a shock: The stock rose 5 per cent after the settlement was announced.
    3. The reforms are the substance, not the money: The mandated safety changes go to how Facebook and Instagram are allowed to operate for minors, and they are overdue rather than novel.

    Why has India’s own debate produced no comparable outcome?

    1. The cycle is episodic and self closing: A tragedy occurs, outrage follows, a platform issues a statement, a parliamentary question may be asked, and silence returns.
    2. The harm is not less serious here: The absence of Indian legal action reflects the absence of a process capable of compelling answers, not a smaller problem.
    3. Regulatory attention has been lighter than in the West: Global platforms have operated in India with weaker oversight and lower public awareness than they face in other large markets.

    What did the American case produce that India lacks?

    1. Court compelled discovery: The litigation forced the company to produce internal research, design documents and executive communications about child safety, under oath, in public and subject to cross examination.
    2. The questions India cannot currently ask: What internal research shows about the mental health impact on Indian teenage girls, how the recommendation engine behaves in Hindi, Tamil and Bengali for a fourteen year old at 11 pm, and how many Indian children under 13 are active on platforms that legally prohibit their membership.
    3. The unmeasured scale of abuse material: The scale of child sexual abuse material affecting Indian users and the manner of its reporting are not on any public record. Eg. In the United States alone, 7.5 million such materials were under internal review.
    4. Whether the same design was applied here: If the addictive design features at issue in the American cases were applied to Indian users, those users have been exposed to the same harm with none of the protection.

    What legal tools does India already hold?

    1. The statutory base already exists: The Consumer Protection Act, 2019, the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012, the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of Children) Act, 2015 and the Constitution together cover the conduct alleged.
    2. A regulator level inquiry: The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR), the statutory body for child rights, can open a formal inquiry compelling platforms to produce India specific safety research, algorithm documentation, data on underage users and internal harm research.
    3. Direct recourse for families: Affected families can approach consumer forums and High Courts directly, without waiting for a regulator to act first.
    4. Coordinated State litigation: State governments can file consumer protection and child safety suits in Indian courts, and a single State moving first can trigger a wider set of filings.
    5. The policy standard is already stated: The Safe, Trusted and Accountable framework developed in 2021 was built so that platforms operating at scale bear legal responsibility for the consequences of their design choices.

    Why is new legislation still needed?

    1. Existing law compels disclosure only case by case: Each of the routes above produces documents inside one proceeding, so nothing survives the case that produced it.
    2. A statutory right to algorithmic disclosure: Parliament can create an obligation on platforms to reveal their content moderation policies, recommendation engine parameters and child safety research for Indian users.
    3. A standing recipient rather than a court: The disclosure would run to a designated Indian authority, which turns a litigated exception into a continuing duty.

    Challenges to compelling platform disclosure in India

    1. No child rights regulator holds standing discovery power: A statutory commission can summon information, and it cannot compel sworn production of internal research open to cross examination. Eg. Platform responses to Indian regulators are routinely filed as written submissions rather than as evidence tested in a hearing.
      The Fix: Give the child rights commission discovery powers with a stated penalty for non production, on the model available to a commission of inquiry.
    2. Consumer forums cannot read algorithmic evidence: A district or State consumer commission has no technical assessor able to interpret recommendation engine documentation. Eg. Consumer adjudication in India is built around defective goods and deficient services, not around product design telemetry.
      The Fix: Attach a standing panel of technical assessors to the National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission for platform cases.
    3. The evidence sits outside Indian process: Internal research and design documents are held on servers abroad and reached through mutual legal assistance. Eg. Mutual legal assistance requests to the United States for platform records routinely take more than a year to return.
      The Fix: Write a production obligation for India specific safety research into intermediary due diligence, so the duty attaches to operating in India rather than to where a server sits.
    4. Safe harbour blunts liability for design: Section 79 of the Information Technology Act, 2000 shields intermediaries for third party content, and design and ranking choices are argued into that shelter. Eg. Platforms have defended recommendation ranking as an automated function rather than as an editorial act.
      The Fix: Separate design and ranking decisions from hosting in the due diligence rules, so safe harbour covers content and not product architecture.

    Conclusion

    Platform accountability in India has been argued at the level of statements and outrage, never at the level of evidence. The material that would establish whether Indian children were exposed to the same design choices sits with the platforms, and no Indian process currently compels its production. Legislation would convert that into a standing duty, and litigation would produce it once. The marker to watch is whether any Indian regulator or State government files an action carrying discovery powers, rather than another request for information.

    Online child safety in India

    1. What the domain covers: It governs how platforms design products for users below 18, across age of access, consent, exposure to content and collection of data.
    2. The regulatory age is higher than the platform age: Indian data protection law treats anyone below 18 as a child, while platforms set their own account creation floor at 13.
    3. States have moved before the Centre: Karnataka announced plans to bar social media for those under 16, and Andhra Pradesh announced restrictions for those under 13.
    4. The evidence base cited officially: Research highlighted in the Economic Survey 2025-26 records that adolescents lack the neurological brakes needed to resist addictive features such as infinite scroll.

    Laws and Rules Governing Online Child Safety

    1. Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: It treats any individual below 18 as a child, requires verifiable parental consent before processing a child’s data, and prohibits behavioural tracking and targeted advertising directed at children.
    2. The Data Protection Board of India adjudicates breaches and imposes penalties under the Act, with appeals lying to the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal.
    3. Information Technology Act, 2000: Section 67B criminalises publishing or transmitting material depicting children in sexually explicit acts, and extends to browsing and downloading such material.
    4. Indian Penal Code and Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita provisions on obscenity: They cover sale and circulation of obscene material to a person under 20, and operate alongside the specialised child protection statutes.

    Key Facts about Online Child Safety

    1. Australia set a minimum age of 16 for social media accounts through the Online Safety Amendment (Social Media Minimum Age) Act 2024, enforced from December 2025.
    2. Indonesia became the first Southeast Asian country to enforce a ban for under 16s, in March 2026.
    3. Gaming disorder is classified as a health condition in the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Diseases, Eleventh Revision (ICD-11).
    4. Kerala runs Digital De-Addiction centres, known as D-DAD centres, for children showing signs of compulsive device use.

    Challenges in Online Child Safety

    1. Age verification is easily circumvented: A minimum age holds only where the platform can establish age, and self declared dates of birth cannot be checked. Eg. Children open accounts on platforms barring under 13s using a false year of birth or an adult family member’s account.
      The Fix: Move to privacy preserving age estimation processed on the device, rather than to identity document uploads.
    2. Verification itself creates a new privacy risk: Establishing age through selfies, identity documents or bank details assembles a fresh database of minors’ sensitive data. Eg. Document based age checks require a child to hand a platform the exact identifiers the law is trying to keep from it.
      The Fix: Require age signals to be discarded once the check is complete, with a bar on retaining the underlying document.
    3. A ban pushes use underground: Restriction moves minors to less regulated services and to tools that hide their location. Eg. Teenagers migrate to smaller platforms or route access through virtual private networks.
      The Fix: Replace a binary ban with a graduated model, strict restriction under 13, supervised access from 13 to 15, and full access at 16.
    4. Restriction removes support networks for some children: Online communities are the only peer support available to some minors, and a blanket bar cuts that too. Eg. LGBTQ+, neurodivergent and disabled children frequently depend on such communities.
      The Fix: Exempt verified support, counselling and helpline services from minor account restrictions.

    [2025, GS2, 15 marks] The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights has to address the challenges faced by children in the digital era. Examine the existing policies and suggest measures the Commission can initiate to tackle the issue.”

  • Police camera ‘caught’ murder, rape accused at Jantar Mantar protest

    Police camera ‘caught’ murder, rape accused at Jantar Mantar protest

    Why in the News

    The Delhi Police has told the Supreme Court that its Facial Recognition System (FRS) spotted 2,873 people with criminal antecedents at the main protest site at Jantar Mantar between 20 and 26 July. The submission follows a Supreme Court order quashing every First Information Report (FIR) arising from the exam leak student protests.

    What is the Delhi Police’s Facial Recognition System?

    1. What the software does: It places boxes around faces detected in a camera feed and compares them against images held in police databases.
    2. The threshold for a positive match: A match is treated as positive at an accuracy rate of 80 per cent, a figure the force disclosed in a 2022 reply under the Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005.
    3. What it searches against: Of the 2,873 flags, 2,402 were attributed to Crime Kundli, the force’s own biometric database, and 471 to criminal records.
    4. What the output is not: A match is not by itself proof of identity, and performance varies with the algorithm, camera angle, lighting, image quality, masks and the database being searched.

    What does the offence-wise breakdown in the affidavit show?

    1. The residual category is the largest by far: 1,884 of the 2,873, close to two thirds, sit under other Indian Penal Code, Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita and special law entries rather than under any named serious offence.
    2. The legal status of those flagged is unstated: The affidavit does not specify whether the people identified were accused, convicts, or merely named in criminal cases.
    3. The database is claimed to hold only serious offenders: The affidavit states that the face and other material of only those accused facing serious offences are in the police record, and not those facing petty offences such as traffic violations.
    4. The geographic concentration: The North district recorded the highest count at 285, followed by Outer at 257, North West at 256, North East at 174, East at 173 and South West at 166. Railways, Crime Branch, IGI Airport, Metro and the Special Cell were among the other units listed.

    What did the record check of 205 flagged individuals find?

    1. The sample examined: The 205 comprised 101 murder accused, 61 rape accused, 6 accused under the Protection of Children from Sexual Offences (POCSO) Act, 2012, and 37 of the 62 listed under attempt to murder.
    2. The finding: At least 25 of them were lodged in the Tihar, Mandoli or Rohini prison complexes at the time the system flagged them, according to police, jail and court records.
    3. The composition of the 25: 17 were accused in murder cases, 4 in rape cases of which 3 were under the POCSO Act, and 4 in attempt to murder cases.
    4. The dates of the flags: Three of the 25 were identified on 24 July, 21 on 25 July and one on 26 July, the final day of the protest.

    Why does the police assurance not settle the question?

    1. Verification is the only safeguard on record: The stated position is that action follows only after field verification establishes that the person was in fact present at the site, and no verification standard, timeline or reporting duty accompanies that assurance.
    2. Verification is still pending at scale: The force has stated that further verification of the identified individuals is pending, which leaves 2,873 names on a list that a court has already permitted the government to act on.
    3. The accuracy threshold is an internal setting, not a legal standard: An 80 per cent match is a configuration choice inside the software, and no statute, rule or judicial direction fixes what confidence level may be relied on before a person is named.
    4. The error is not random noise: People held in custody were placed at a protest site by the system, which points to database and matching failure rather than to a borderline image.

    Challenges to facial recognition in policing

    1. No statutory basis governs deployment: India has no law authorising or limiting police use of facial recognition, so procurement, matching thresholds and retention are set administratively. Eg. The Delhi Police’s 80 per cent threshold became public only through a Right to Information reply, not through a published rule.
      The Fix: Require prior legislative authorisation and a published operating standard for any biometric identification system before it is deployed in a public space.
    2. Accuracy falls sharply for some groups: Error rates in facial recognition are higher for darker skin tones, women and younger faces, so the burden of a false match is not evenly spread. Eg. The United States National Institute of Standards and Technology’s evaluation of commercial algorithms recorded higher false positive rates across demographic groups.
      The Fix: Mandate a published demographic error audit of the deployed algorithm before each operational use, with results filed with the sanctioning authority.
    3. The system was built for one purpose and used for another: A database assembled to trace missing persons or match crime scene images becomes a crowd screening tool without any fresh authorisation. Eg. The Delhi Police’s facial recognition capability was originally acquired for tracing missing children.
      The Fix: Attach a statutory purpose limitation to each biometric database, so any new use requires a separate written sanction that is placed on record.
    4. Surveillance at a protest changes who turns up: Recording and matching faces at an assembly deters lawful participation independently of any action that follows. Eg. Cameras mounted on police vans at the Jantar Mantar site were visible to those attending.
      The Fix: Bar identification of participants at a lawful assembly except on a written order naming a specific cognisable offence under investigation.
    5. There is no route to contest a match: A person flagged by the system is not told, so the error surfaces only if a journalist or a court checks the records. Eg. The 25 custodial mismatches came to light through a newspaper’s record check, not through any internal review.
      The Fix: Require written notice to every individual against whom a biometric match is acted on, with a stated procedure to seek correction of the underlying record.

    Conclusion

    A facial match is being treated as a sufficient basis to proceed against a named list, while the force’s own position is that a match establishes nothing on its own. Both cannot hold at once. Nothing on record fixes what field verification must consist of, who performs it, or who checks that it happened. The point to watch is whether the Court requires the verification outcome for each flagged individual to be filed before any action follows.

    [2024] Under which of the following Articles of the Constitution of India, has the Supreme Court of India placed the Right to Privacy?

    (a) Article 15

    (b) Article 16

    (c) Article 19

    (d) Article 21

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