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  • The crucial aspect of development process has been the inadequate attention paid to Human Resource Development in India. Suggest measures that can address this adequacy.

    Human Resource Development refers to the strategic investment in education, health, and skills to empower individuals, foster productivity, and ensure sustainable national growth.

    Inadequate Attention to HRD in India

    Stagnant Public Spending: Education spending is ~2.9% of GDP (2024-25), far below the 6% target set by NEP 2020. (Economic Survey 2025-26)

    Learning Poverty Paradox: ASER 2024 reports that only ~43% of Class V students can read a Class II-level text.

    Acute Skill Mismatch: Only 56.35% of Indian graduates were found employable by industry standards in 2026. (India Skills Report 2026)

    Chronic Nutrition Crisis: 35.5% of children under five are stunted, affecting long-term human capital. (NFHS-5)

    Gender Participation Gap: Female Labour Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) stands at 32.7% compared to over 75% for males. (PLFS 2024-25)

    The Persistence of Digital Divide: Unequal access to tech-enabled learning alienates rural and economically vulnerable students.

    Vocational Stigma: Less than 5% of the workforce has formal vocational training. (NSDC 2024)

    Healthcare Infrastructure Gaps: Public health spending remains around 2.1% of GDP. (NHP recommended 2.5%)

    Mental Health Neglect: Rising student anxiety and workplace burnout are modern HRD barriers.

    Brain Drain: Failure to provide high-end research infrastructure leads to the flight of top-tier talent.

    Measures to Address HRD Inadequacy

    Capability Approach – increase spending on Health (2.5%of GDP) and Education (6% of GDP)

    Foundational Literacy Focus: Prioritize the NIPUN Bharat Mission to ensure every child achieves grade-level competency

    Vocational-Academic Integration: Mandate vocational training in secondary schools to bridge the gap between schooling and work. (NEP, 2020)

    Strengthening Primary Health: Expand the Ayushman Bharat Health and Wellness Centres to ensure preventative care is a “right.”

    Bridging the Digital Gap: Use BharatNet Phase-III to provide high-speed fiber connectivity to every rural school.

    Empowering Women Workers: Provide safe transport, childcare, and flexible work to boost female participation. Eg: Karnataka’s Shakti Yojan and free higher education for girls.

    Institutionalizing Mental Wellness: Make Socio-Emotional Learning (SEL) a core part of the school and office curriculum.

    R&D and Innovation Hubs: Establish the National Research Foundation (NRF) to fund deep-tech innovation and retain high-end talent.

    By integrating health, education, and skills into a holistic HRD framework, India can achieve inclusive growth and the vision of a developed nation by 2047.

  • Give out the major sources of terror funding in India and the efforts being made to curtail these sources. In the light of this, also discuss the aim and objective of the ‘No Money for Terror (NMFT)’ Conference recently held at New Delhi in November 2022.

    Funding is the lifeblood of terrorism. The “No Money for Terror” conference was started in 2018 by the French government, to enhance cooperation between countries to choke terror funding.

    As per FATF Report‘Comprehensive Update on Terrorist Financing Risks’, the major sources of terror funding include

    Traditional Methods

    Hawala Networks – Informal money transfers bypassing banks.

    State-Sponsored Funding – Eg- Pakistan’s ISI financing LeT and JeM operations in India.

    Narco-Terrorism – Eg- Heroin smuggling via Punjab linked to terror networks.

    Counterfeit Indian Currency (FICN) – Fake currency to fund operations and destabilise economy.

    Extortion and Illegal Levies – Eg- Maoist levies on mining contractors in Chhattisgarh.

    Charities and NGO Fronts – Eg- PFI-linked organisations routing funds for radicalisation.

    Organised Crime Nexus – Eg- Arms and timber smuggling in Northeast India.

    Emerging Methods

    Social media – used to promote donation campaigns and share payment instructions, including wallet addresses.

    Cryptocurrencies and Virtual Assets – Eg- Bitcoin wallets.

    Encrypted Payment Apps and E-Wallets – Eg- PayPal

    Dark Web Transactions – Anonymous marketplaces for funds, weapons and logistics.

    Gaming Platforms – Eg- EoRMT organisations, Hezbollah, creating and selling their own video games

    Microfinancing models utilized by lone actors – through small, legitimate sources of income.

    Efforts made to curtail these sources

    India has declared zero tolerance towards terror financing and money laundering

    Legal measures – Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act and Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) are used to designate individuals and seize funds linked to terrorism.

    Institutional measures – National Investigation Agency (NIA) investigate terror funding, while the Enforcement Directorate (ED) pursues money-laundering cases.

    The Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU-IND) tracks and analyses suspicious financial transactions and shares data with law-enforcement.

    Specialised units such as the Terror Funding and Fake Currency (TFFC) Cell focus on disrupting terror finance links.

    India collaborates with bodies like Financial Action Task Force (FATF) and Egmont Group to share intelligence and align standards against terror financing.

    Monitoring of NGOs for FCRA compliance. Eg- Ban on NGOs linked to Zakir Naik

    Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act (PROGA) 2025 – bans all real-money online gaming (RMG), including games of skill

    National Intelligence Grid (NATGRID), has been created as an IT platform to assist the intelligence and law enforcement agencies.

    Aim and Objective of the ‘No Money for Terror (NMFT)’ Conference

    Global Cooperation on Terror Financing

    Focus on Trends in Terror Funding – Deliberations focused on formal and informal channels, and the evolving methods of terror finance.

    Regulating and countering use of Emerging Technologies like cryptocurrencies and digital platforms for terror financing

    Mobilise resources to enable LDCs and developing countries to counter terror financing

    Enhance information sharing, harmonise legal measures, and bolster mutual assistance between countries to intercept and prosecute terror financing.

    India stressed a uniform and zero-tolerance approach to terrorism and its financing, rejecting distinctions between “good” and “bad” terrorism.

    NMFT 2022 built on earlier conferences (Paris 2018, Melbourne 2019) to maintain continuity and momentum in international action against terror finance.

    “Money is the oxygen of terrorism. Cut the oxygen, and you suffocate the threat.” – Antonio Guterres, UN Secretary-General

  • Winning of ‘Hearts and Minds’ in terrorism-affected areas is an essential step in restoring the trust of the population. Discuss the measures adopted by the Government in this respect as part of the conflict resolution in Jammu and Kashmir.

    The “Hearts and Minds” approach in counter-terrorism is a strategic doctrine that emphasizes building trust, and popular support within local populations to defeat terrorist movements.

    Importance of Hearts and Minds

    Prevention of Radicalization by deligitimising terrorism

    Community Intelligence Gathering

    Reducing Support for Terrorist Activities

    Enhanced Legitimacy of the State – state as ‘development partner’ rather than ‘occupying force’

    Long-Term Stability and Peace as ‘residual anger’ is addressed

    Measures adopted by the Government

    National integration through abrogation of Article 370

    Operation Sadbhavana – Army-led goodwill initiatives focusing on education, healthcare and youth engagement.

    Civic Action Programme (CAP) – Police and CAPFs hold public meetings, sports events and grievance redress camps. Eg- Jan Sampark melas

    Skill development, entrepreneurship push – Eg- Mission Youth and Himayat

    Social infrastructure development – Eg- IIT and AIIMS in jammu

    Connectivity initiatives for tourism promotion. Eg- Chenab Bridge, and running Vande Bharat trains

    De-radicalisation Centres – Counselling sessions for first-time offenders.

    Surrender and Rehabilitation policy for former militants through financial assistance, education and job support.

    Targeted Security Approach – Eg- Focus on OGWs and hybrid militants without mass crackdowns.

    Community Policing – Eg- Village Defence Groups in Rajouri-Poonch.

    For long-term peace and stability in the region 4-pronged stategy is needed

    Strengthening HUMINT (Human Intelligence) and TECHINT (Technological Intelligence).

    SMART Boders (Madhukar Gupta Committee)

    Raising cost of terrorism for Pakistan. Eg- Operation Sindoor

    Human-centric Counterinsurgency

  • Discuss several ways in which microorganisms can help in meeting the current fuel shortage.

    Microorganisms are microscopic organisms such as bacteria, fungi, archaea, and microalgae that can break down organic matter and produce useful energy compounds. Due to these capabilities, they are becoming important for sustainable energy production and the global clean energy transition.

    Ways Microorganisms Help in Meeting Fuel Shortage

    Bioethanol: Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Zymomonas mobilis ferment sugars and agricultural waste into ethanol. India achieved 10% ethanol blending in 2022 and targets 20% (E20) by 2025-26.

    Biodiesel: Microalgae such as Chlorella and Dunaliella produce lipid-rich biomass, which is converted into biodiesel through transesterification.

    Biogas through Anaerobic Digestion: Methanogens decompose sewage, food waste, and cow dung to produce methane-rich biogas. Eg- India’s GOBAR-dhan scheme.

    Biohydrogen Production: Certain photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria can split water or organic compounds to release Hydrogen gas, the cleanest burning fuel.

    Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs): Bacteria break down organic waste in wastewater and release electrons, generating electricity while simultaneously treating the wastewater.

    Biobutanol Production: Species like Clostridium acetobutylicum produce butanol through ABE (Acetone-Butanol-Ethanol) fermentation. Biobutanol is considered superior to ethanol.

    Syngas Fermentation: Acetogenic bacteria can convert synthesis gas (CO and H2 from industrial emissions or biomass gasification) into liquid fuels like ethanol and acetic acid.

    Microbial Enhanced Oil Recovery (MEOR): Microbes are injected into depleted oil wells where they produce surfactants and gases that decrease oil viscosity.

    For a country like India, which imports over 80% of its crude oil, scaling up microbial fuel technologies is essential for achieving Urja Atmanirbharta (Energy Self-reliance) and meeting the Panchamrit targets for net-zero emissions.

  • “Development and welfare schemes for the vulnerable, by its nature, are discriminatory in approach.” Do you agree? Give reasons for your answer.

    As Dr. B.R. Ambedkar said, “Political democracy cannot last unless there lies at the base of it social democracy.” Development and welfare schemes are pivotal for uplifting vulnerable sections of society.

    Welfare Schemes – “Discriminatory”

    Targeted Beneficiaries – Eg- Stand-Up India provides loans only to SC/ST and women entrepreneurs.

    Resource Allocation Bias – Eg- Special Component Plan (SCP) and Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) earmark fixed budgetary percentages.

    Political and Regional Disparities – Eg- 90% central funding to North East and Special Category states under CSS

    Dependency and Moral Hazard – Overemphasis on welfare transfers can foster dependency rather than empowerment.

    Bias and Perceived Discrimination – Non-reserved categories view these schemes as diluting meritocracy and unfair. Eg- Reservation Policies

    Welfare Schemes – Corrective, Not Discriminatory

    Constitutional Mandate for Positive Discrimination – Articles 15(4) and 46 empower the state to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes.

    Bridge Structural Inequalities and corrects historical injustices. Eg- 106th Amendment Act

    Inclusive Human Development – Programs like Ayushman Bharat, PM Poshan, and PM Matru Vandana Yojana address basic capabilities of health, nutrition, and education.

    Aligns with the UN SDGs (Goal 1: No Poverty, Goal 10: Reduced Inequality) which encourage special focus on vulnerable populations.

    Resource Optimization- Limited resources necessitate prioritizing those most in need, ensuring efficient use of funds.

    Impact Maximization- Eg- Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) for affordable housing.

    Social Cohesion- Inclusive growth fosters social stability and reduces tensions arising from socio-economic disparities.

    Impact

    India lifted 248 million people out of multidimensional poverty between 2013-14 and 2022-23 (NITI Aayog, MPI Report 2024).

    MGNREGA: Women’s participation stands at over 57%, reflecting strong gender inclusion.

    PM Ujjwala Yojana – Over 10.5 crore LPG connections provided since 2016

    PM Jan Dhan Yojana: 55 crore accounts opened, with 56% held by women

    Way Forward

    Capability Approach: increase expenditure on Health (2.5% of GDP) and Education (6% of GDP)

    Bottom-up Planning – Porto Alegre Brazil Model

    Welfare schemes for the vulnerable may appear discriminatory in form, but they are affirmative in purpose to realise the vision of “Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas, Sabka Vishwas”

    Women Empowerment

  • Skill development programs have succeed in increasing human resources supply to various sectors. In the context of the statement analyze the linkages between education, skill and employment.

    Education, skill, and employment form the triad of human capital formation, driving productivity and inclusive growth.

    Education-Skill-Employment Linkages

    Education as Foundation: provides cognitive abilities, literacy, and numeracy, forming the base for advanced skill acquisition. Eg- NEP 2020 integrates vocational exposure from Class 6

    Formal education develops critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, and soft skills like communication and teamwork, essential for the workplace.

    Skill as Bridge: transforms theoretical knowledge into practical competence needed by industries. Schemes like PMKVY and DDU-GKY create job-ready youth.

    Employment as Outcome: Skilled and educated individuals meet the sectoral demands in manufacturing, services, and digital sectors, ensuring sustainable livelihoods.

    Circular Relationship:

    Employment reinforces education and upskilling through continuous learning.

    Promotes innovation, productivity, and entrepreneurship, especially in MSME and start-up ecosystems.

    Challenges

    Mismatch between academic curricula and industry needs.

    Regional disparity in training infrastructure.

    Lack of soft skills and digital literacy.

    Lack of continuous updating of curriculum to match evolving industry needs.

    Challenges in ensuring high-quality training and certification aligned with industry standards.

    Fragmented implementation (In-silos approach) of schemes like PMKVY, PM-NAPS, and JSS

    Low Formal Skill Penetration – Only 4.7% of India’s workforce has received formal vocational training (NSDC, 2025), compared to 52% in the U.S. and 80% in South Korea.

    Limited Apprenticeship Penetration – Only ~0.1% of the workforce is engaged in formal apprenticeships, due to low awareness and regulatory burdens for employers.

    Way Forward

    Evidence-Based Interventions – Enhance skill mapping to align training programs with evolving job market needs.

    Adopt Result-Based Financing (RBF) and Skill Impact Bonds to link funds with placement, wage gain, and retention outcomes.

    Strengthen industry-academia collaboration through apprenticeship models. Adopt Germany’s dual vocational system.

    Align education with the National Skills Qualification Framework (NSQF).

    Promote lifelong learning and digital reskilling.

    Strengthening this linkage is essential for realizing India’s demographic dividend and building an Atmanirbhar Bharat.

  • ‘The expansion and strengthening of NATO and a stronger US-Europe strategic partnership works well in India.’ What is your opinion about this statement? Give reasons and examples to support your answer.

    The NATO, Cold War-era collective defence alliance, has been revitalized after Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (2022), leading to strengthening of US-Europe strategic convergence.

    While India is not a NATO member, this development aligns with many of India’s strategic interests in maintaining a stable, rules-based international order.

    NATO Strengthening Works Well for India

    A stronger NATO balances Russia-China “no-limits partnership” (2022) that could undermine India’s strategic space in Eurasia.

    NATO’s stand against territorial aggression (Ukraine invasion) reinforces the sovereignty principle, resonating with India’s stance on border integrity (Galwan Clash).

    Strategic Convergence with the West – NATO’s pivot to the Indo-Pacific (NATO 2022 Strategic Concept) opens opportunities for India-NATO dialogue on maritime and cyber security.

    Countering China – A stronger transatlantic alliance allows US to share security responsibilities with Europe, freeing bandwidth for the Indo-Pacific focus under Quad and AUKUS.

    Western unity enables India to access cutting-edge defence technology and enhanced intelligence sharing. Eg- India-France Rafale Deal.

    Value-Based Convergence – Reinforces shared democratic values, human rights, and rule of law. Eg- India’s participation in the Summit for Democracy.

    Trade and investment flow – Stability in Europe can facilitate greater cooperation in trade, connectivity and technology domains. Eg- Recent India-UK trade deal

    Challenges

    NATO’s expansion risks reviving Cold War-style bipolarity, which goes against India’s principle of strategic autonomy and multi-alignment.

    USA’s policy of Bait and Bloodletting by prolonging Russia-Ukraine war undermines India’s policy of peaceful resolutions of disputes.

    NATO’s confrontation with Russia complicates India’s long-standing defence and energy ties with Moscow. Eg- US sanctions on Russian Oil

    A tighter US-Europe nexus could monopolize advanced technologies and make India dependent on Western supply chains.

    NATO’s eastward expansion and Russia’s isolation weaken Eurasian platforms (like SCO and BRICS) which can limit India’s influence in Central Asia.

    The West’s climate and trade protectionism undermines developing nations’ interests. Eg- EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism

    Way Forward

    Strategic autonomy with issue based partnerships based on enlightened self interest (S. Jaishankar)

    Waivers for Chabahar Port and Russian oil and defense imports to preserve Strategic Autonomy

    Strengthening Bilateral Relations with EU and other European powers like UK, France. Eg- early conclusion of India-EU FTA

    Promoting Atmanirbharta in defence sector. Eg- make in India-make for the world.

    As per Shivshankar Menon, foreign policy is about Mini-maxing i.e. minimising harm and maximising gain. Multi-vector diplomacy and strategic autonomy is the way forward.

  • Explain the structure of the Parliamentary Committee system. How far have the financial committees helped in the institutionalization of Indian Parliament?

    According to LS speaker Om Birla, Parliamentary Committees are the “backbone of parliamentary democracy. It is an essential mechanism of legislative oversight, promoting informed, bipartisan, and continuous accountability.

    Structure of the Parliamentary Committee System

    Standing Committees (Permanent in Nature)-

    Department-related Standing Committees (DRSCs) – 24 in number; examine Bills, budgets, and policies of ministries.

    Financial Committees – Public Accounts Committee (PAC), Estimates Committee, and Committee on Public Undertakings (COPU).

    Housekeeping Committees – e.g., Business Advisory Committee, Committee on Subordinate Legislation, etc.

    Ad hoc Committees (Temporary in Nature)- Constituted for specific purposes – e.g., Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) on the 2G Spectrum Scam (2011) and Waqf Amendment Bill.

    Importance of Parliamentary Committees

    Ensuring Fiscal Accountability – Committees like PAC scrutinize CAG reports, ensuring that public funds are used efficiently and lawfully.

    Continuous Executive Oversight – They enable ongoing parliamentary supervision over expenditure, even when Parliament is not in session.

    Strengthening Audit Mechanism – The PAC’s linkage with CAG institutionalizes the audit process, reinforcing transparency in governance.

    Promoting Rational Budgeting – The Estimates Committee evaluates expenditure patterns and recommends economy and efficiency in public spending.

    Enhancing PSU Accountability – The Committee on Public Undertakings (COPU) monitors performance and financial health of PSUs, promoting corporate discipline.

    Institutional Continuity – These committees function annually, ensuring regular scrutiny beyond political cycles.

    Evidence-Based Decision Making – Reports are based on expert testimony and data, improving quality of legislative oversight.

    Non-Partisan Deliberation – Work in committees is largely bipartisan, reducing political confrontation seen in the House.

    Public Transparency – Publication of reports increases citizen awareness and reinforces Parliament’s role as a watchdog of the executive.

    Institutional Memory Building – The accumulated reports and recommendations create a repository of fiscal best practices for future governance.

    Challenges-

    Non-binding recommendations and lack of discussion on parliamentary reports

    Fewer bills referred- In the 15th Lok Sabha -71%, 16th Lok Sabha -27% and in 17th Lok Sabha -16% of the bills introduced were referred to the committees.

    Lack of specialised knowledge among members in financial and economic matters leads to superficial scrutiny.

    Bulky CAG and budgetary reports result in inadequate time for detailed examination.

    Post mortem analysis- This lowers the quality of oversight and recommendations.

    Political influence often causes biased decision-making and undermines objectivity.

    Lack of Public Awareness and Transparency- Committee proceedings are held behind closed doors.

    Way Forward

    Implement ARC & NCRWC suggestions for expert support units and public disclosure of reports.

    Enhance capacity-building of MPs on financial management.

    Make committee recommendations time-bound and mandatory for government response.

    In the words of Woodrow Wilson, “Congress in session is Congress on public exhibition, while Congress in its committee rooms is Congress at work.”

  • Explain the constitutional perspectives of Gender Justice with the help of relevant Constitutional Provisions and case laws.

    Gender justice implies ensuring equality, dignity, and non-discrimination for women genders in political, social, and economic spheres.

    As per UN Women, gender justice entails ending the inequalities between women and men that are produced and reproduced in the family, the community, the market and the state.

    Constitutional Provisions

    Articles 14, 15, 16 – Equality before law, prohibition of gender discrimination, equal opportunities in employment.

    Article 21 – Right to life with dignity, bodily autonomy, and reproductive choice.

    Articles 39(a), 39(d), 42 – Equal pay for equal work, maternity relief, humane conditions of work.

    73rd & 74th Amendments – 33% reservation for women in Panchayati Raj and urban local bodies.

    Articles 23 & 24 – Prohibition of trafficking of women and child labour.

    Article 51A(e) – Fundamental duty to renounce practices derogatory to women’s dignity.

    Case Laws

    Air India v. Nargesh Mirza (1981) – Struck down discriminatory service rules against women employees.

    Anuj Garg v. Hotel Association (2008) – Invalidated law barring women from working in bars as stereotypical.

    Vishaka v. State of Rajasthan (1997) – Laid down sexual harassment guidelines at workplace.

    Joseph Shine v. UOI (2018) – Struck down adultery law as discriminatory.

    Rajesh Kumar Gupta v. State of UP (2005) – Upheld reservation for women in teacher recruitment.

    Laxmi v. Union of India (2014) – Guidelines for acid attack victims’ compensation.

    Independent Thought v. UOI (2017) – Criminalised marital rape of girls aged 15-18.

    Shah Bano Case (1985) – Muslim woman’s right to maintenance upheld.

    Shayara Bano v. UOI (2017) – Instant triple talaq declared unconstitutional.

    Indian Young Lawyers Assn. v. State of Kerala (2018) – Sabarimala judgment ensured women’s entry into temples.

    Challenges

    Patriarchal Mindset – Eg- khap Panchayats

    Implementation Gap – Eg- Beti Bachao Beti Padhao

    Violence Against Women – Rising cases of domestic violence, acid attacks, honour killings.

    Intersectional Discrimination – Dalit, tribal, and minority women face compounded marginalisation.

    Way Forward for Gender Justice–

    Effective Implementation – Strict monitoring of laws like POSH Act, Dowry Prohibition Act, and POCSO.

    Judicial Responsiveness – Fast-track courts and gender-sensitive training for judges.

    Bibipur Model (Haryana) naming streets after daughters to promote recognition.

    Digital Empowerment – Tamil Nadu’s Agal Vilakku to address cyberbullying and online harassment.

    “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved.” – Ambedkar

    Salient Features – Preamble to Emergency

  • Account for the legal and political factors responsible for the reduced frequency of using Article 356 by the Union Governments since mid 1990s.

    Article 356 empowers the Union to impose President’s Rule in a State when the constitutional machinery fails. Between 1950-1990, it was invoked over 90 times. However, since the mid-1990s, its frequency has declined.

    Grounds of Imposition of President’s Rule

    Article 355 – Union’s duty to protect States and ensure constitutional governance.

    Article 356 – President’s Rule if State govt. cannot be carried on as per Constitution (based on Governor’s report or otherwise).

    Article 365 – If the State fails to comply with Union directions, the President may hold constitutional machinery has failed.

    Legal Factors

    The 38th Amendment (1975) made President’s Rule immune from judicial review, but the 44th Amendment (1978) reversed this, restoring judicial scrutiny.

    S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994) Guidelines

    Judicial Review – Proclamation under Article 356 subject to court scrutiny.

    Floor Test Rule – Majority to be tested on the floor of the House, not decided by Governor/President.

    Limits on Dissolution – Assembly cannot be dissolved before Parliament approves President’s Rule.

    Non-Arbitrariness – Political differences or administrative failures do not justify dismissal.

    Basic Structure Check – Federalism held as part of the Basic Structure; arbitrary use of Article 356 violates it.

    Subsequent Judicial Oversight – SC interventions in Uttarakhand (2016) and Arunachal Pradesh (2016) reinstated governments, reinforcing judicial limits on Centre’s power.

    Evolving Constitutional Conventions – Growing acceptance that President’s Rule is an exceptional remedy of last resort.

    Political Factors

    Rise of Coalition Politics (Post-1990s) – NDA, UPA and regional coalitions ensured that Centre relied on States for stability, reducing incentive for dismissals.

    Rise of Regional Parties – Strong regional satraps made dismissal politically costly, pushing Union towards consensus-based federalism.

    LPG Reforms (1991 onwards) shifted focus from political control to economic autonomy of states. Eg – 14th Finance Commission (2015) increased States’ share of divisible tax pool from 32% to 42%, strengthening fiscal federalism.

    Maturation of Federal Culture – Growth of cooperative federal institutions (Inter-State Council, GST Council, NITI Aayog) created forums for resolving Centre-State disputes outside coercive measures.

    Stable Majority Governments in States – As governance matured, strong state leadership and regional mandates reduced chances of political instability being exploited by the Union.

    Active Role of President – In 1997, President K.R. Narayanan returned the Cabinet’s recommendation for President’s Rule in Uttar Pradesh.

    Integrity of Governors – In 1990-91, Governor Surjit Singh Barnala refused Centre’s directive to recommend President’s Rule in Tamil Nadu.

    Though the frequency of Article 356 has reduced, instances like Maharashtra (2019) show it is still misused. Thus, the way forward is

    Punchhi Commission

    Localized use of Article 356 – applicable to a district or part of a district, not the whole State.

    Emergency duration should be limited to 3 months only.

    Sarkaria Commission

    Last resort – Invoke Article 356 only when all alternatives fail.

    Prior warning to the State and exploration of alternate solutions required.

    Proclamation must state material facts, ensuring Parliamentary control.

    Governor’s report should be a speaking document with wide publicity.

    Obtain State’s explanation before action.

    Federalism

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