Researchers at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST) have successfully created India’s first gene-edited sheep—a Kashmir Merino breed.
About Kashmir Merino Sheep:
Overview: Kashmir Merino is a high-quality domestic sheep breed known for its fine wool and ability to thrive in cold climates.
Genetics: It was developed by crossbreeding exotic Merino rams with local sheep breeds in Jammu and Kashmir.
Characteristics: The breed produces soft, dense wool with high fibre quality, making it valuable for the textile industry.
Resilience: It is well-adapted to high-altitude Himalayan conditions, including extreme cold and low oxygen levels.
Significance: It plays a key role in regional livestock economies, contributing significantly to wool and mutton production in Jammu and Kashmir.
Gene-Editing Breakthrough in Kashmir Merino:
Gene Targeted: Researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 technology to edit the myostatin gene, which normally inhibits muscle growth.
Impact: Disabling this gene led to a 30% increase in muscle mass, resulting in higher meat yield and improved economic returns for farmers.
Lab-to-Field Success: The edited embryo was developed in a laboratory and then successfully implanted into a surrogate mother, marking a full-cycle gene-editing achievement.
Biotech Significance: This success represents a major advancement in India’s livestock biotechnology, opening new paths for research in disease resistance, wool quality enhancement, and production of transgenic proteins.
[UPSC 2017] What is the application of somatic cell nuclear transfer technology?
Options: (a) Production of biolarvicides (b) Manufacture of biodegradable plastics (c) Reproductive cloning of animals* (d) Production of organisms free of diseases
NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter has captured a spectacular image of Arsia Mons, one of Mars’ largest volcanoes.
About Arsia Mons Volcano:
Location: Arsia Mons is a massive shield volcano on Mars, located in the Tharsis region near the planet’s equator.
Volcanic Chain: It is part of the Tharsis Montes trio, which includes Pavonis Mons and Ascraeus Mons.
Size and Structure: The volcano rises about 20 km (12 miles) in height and spans 450 kilometres in diameter, making it one of the largest in the Solar System.
Summit Caldera: Arsia Mons has an enormous caldera, or summit crater, measuring 120 kilometres across, which is much wider than most Earth volcanoes.
Volcano Type: It is a shield volcano, characterised by gentle slopes formed through successive lava flows.
Surface Features: Signs of lava channels, landslides, and possible ancient glaciers have been observed on its flanks.
Cloud Activity: Known as the cloudiest volcano on Mars, Arsia Mons regularly develops water-ice clouds near its summit, especially at sunrise and during aphelion, when Mars is farthest from the Sun.
Its Significance:
Recent Imaging: A new image released by NASA shows Arsia Mons piercing through morning haze, offering scientists a horizon-level view of Martian terrain.
Scientific Importance: Observations help researchers analyse Martian weather, seasonal climate patterns, and atmospheric behaviour.
Mission Relevance: Arsia Mons plays a key role in understanding Mars’ volcanic history, dust storm formation, and identifying future landing zones.
Exploration Support: Data from this region improve planetary weather models and assist in safe mission planning for upcoming robotic and human missions.
Back2Basics: NASA’s Mars Odyssey Orbiter
Launch: Mars Odyssey was launched in 2001, making it NASA’s longest-operating spacecraft at Mars.
Technology: The orbiter captured the Arsia Mons image using the THEMIS (Thermal Emission Imaging System) camera.
Capabilities: This instrument detects both visible and infrared light, allowing scientists to study surface temperatures, mineral compositions, and atmospheric properties.
Unique Technique: To photograph Arsia Mons against the Martian horizon, the orbiter rotated its camera 90 degrees, deviating from its usual ground-facing orientation.
Contributions: It continues to monitor climate changes, study volcanoes and dust storms, and assist with landing site selection.
Support Role: It also serves as a communication relay for other active Mars missions, enabling data transfer and navigation for landers and rovers.
[UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:
The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO 1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission 2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA 3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3
[UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.
Linkage:The article highlight that the world needs to “lower its dependence on fossil fuels” because “greenhouse gas emissions are increasing worldwide,” leading to “rising surface temperatures”. The discussion around Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) in the sources is presented as a controversial technology proposed to “directly cool the planet rather than bank on reducing emissions alone” as a means of “reducing the impacts of climate change
Mentor’s Comment: The world needs to rely less on fossil fuels, but progress has been slow because of problems like war, poverty, and rising prices. As a result, greenhouse gas emissions are still going up. To deal with this, some scientists suggest using new technologies to cool the Earth directly, instead of only focusing on cutting emissions. One such method is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI), where tiny particles are sprayed into the upper atmosphere to block sunlight and reduce warming.
Today’s editorial discusses the Stratospheric Aerosol Injection technique, a key topic for GS Paper III (Science, Technology & Environment), highlighting its potential, challenges, and relevance to climate change mitigation efforts.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
A recent study in the journal Earth’s Future shared a new idea that could make SAI cheaper and easier to use, even though many people are still against it.
What was the new idea?
Use of Existing Aircraft: Instead of waiting a decade and spending billions to build special high-altitude planes, the study proposes modifying existing aircraft (like the Boeing 777F) to spray aerosols at lower altitudes.
Low-Altitude Injection in Polar Regions: The study suggests carrying out aerosol injections at lower altitudes (around 13 km) in polar and extratropical regions, where the stratosphere is more easily reachable. This approach is more cost-effective, technically simpler, and can be implemented sooner.
What is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)?
SAI is a proposed method of cooling the planet by injecting tiny reflective particles (aerosols) into the stratosphere. It is inspired by volcanic eruptions, which naturally cool the Earth by spewing particles that reflect sunlight. These aerosols reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface, creating a cooling effect.
Why is the spraying of aerosol needed?
To Reflect Sunlight and Cool the Planet: Aerosols (like sulphur dioxide) reflect some of the sun’s rays back into space, reducing the heat reaching Earth’s surface. Eg: The 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption released sulphur dioxide, cooling Earth by about 0.5°C for over a year.
To Temporarily Reduce Global Warming Effects: SAI can lower atmospheric temperatures temporarily, helping to reduce severe climate effects like heatwaves, ice melt, and sea-level rise. Eg: A study showed spraying 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide at 13 km altitude could cool the planet by 0.6°C.
To Buy Time for Emissions Reductions and Climate Adaptation: While long-term solutions like clean energy are built, SAI could provide a temporary buffer against extreme climate impacts. Eg: It could delay serious effects like crop failure or habitat loss, allowing time for sustainable reforms.
Why is low-altitude SAI seen as cost-effective?
No Need for Specialized Aircraft: Low-altitude SAI can be conducted using existing aircraft, avoiding the high costs of developing planes that fly above 20 km. Eg: Standard jets like the Boeing 777F can reach stratospheric levels in polar regions, making deployment more affordable.
Technically Less Challenging: Operating at lower altitudes reduces technical complexity, such as extreme temperature and pressure challenges faced at higher elevations. Eg: Modifying existing jets with pressurized tanks is easier than designing new high-altitude aircraft.
Faster Implementation Timeline: It enables quicker deployment, avoiding the 10-year delay and multi-billion dollar investment needed for high-altitude SAI systems. Eg: Using current infrastructure, SAI programs could begin much earlier to address urgent climate risks.
Where is low-altitude injection feasible and why?
Feasible in Polar and Extratropical Regions: In these regions, the stratosphere starts at lower altitudes, making it accessible to standard aircraft. Eg: Over the Arctic or Antarctic, the tropopause (boundary between troposphere and stratosphere) is around 8–13 km, suitable for existing jets.
Infeasible Near the Equator: At equatorial regions, the stratosphere begins at 18 km or higher, which is beyond the reach of most commercial or military jets. Eg: Areas like Indonesia or the Amazon basin would require specially built aircraft for SAI.
Altitude Determines Aerosol Effectiveness: While higher altitude injections last longer in the atmosphere, lower altitude in polar zones allows SAI to be conducted with less cost and effort. Eg: Studies show that even at 13 km altitude in polar spring and summer, SAI can cool the planet by ~0.6°C with 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide.
How does the use of existing aircraft like the Boeing 777F influence the implementation of SAI technology?
Reduces Deployment Costs: Using existing aircraft avoids the high capital expenditure needed to design and build specialized high-altitude jets. Eg: The Boeing 777F, a widely available cargo aircraft, can be adapted for SAI at lower stratospheric levels, cutting costs significantly.
Speeds Up Implementation: Existing jets can be modified and deployed faster, enabling earlier testing and potential use of SAI to address urgent climate risks. Eg: Building high-altitude aircraft may take nearly a decade, but using modified commercial planes could allow operations to start much sooner.
Requires Feasible Technical Modifications: Though not originally built for aerosol spraying, planes like the Boeing 777F can be retrofitted with specialized equipment. Eg: An August 2024 study proposed adding insulated double-walled pressurized tanks to safely carry and release sulphur dioxide.
What are the Risks and Controversies of SAI?
Environmental and Health Side Effects: SAI could lead to acid rain, delayed ozone recovery, and unknown ecological disruptions due to aerosol particles in the atmosphere. Eg: Sulphur dioxide, commonly proposed for SAI, can form sulphuric acid in the atmosphere, harming ecosystems and human health.
Uneven Global Effects: SAI’s cooling impact may not be uniform worldwide, potentially benefiting some regions while worsening droughts, rainfall patterns, or crop yields in others. Eg: Cooling could be stronger in polar regions, while tropical areas, which face the worst climate impacts, may not benefit equally.
Governance and Ethical Concerns: SAI affects the entire planet, raising questions about who decides when, where, and how it’s used. It may lead to geopolitical tensions and misuse. Eg: A single country unilaterally injecting aerosols could trigger international disputes, especially if neighbouring regions suffer unintended consequences.
Way forward:
Establish a Global Governance Framework: International collaboration is essential to regulate research, testing, and potential deployment of SAI, ensuring transparency, accountability, and consent from all affected nations.
Focus on Complementary Climate Strategies: SAI should be treated as a temporary, supplementary tool, not a replacement for emission reduction. Massive investments must continue in renewables, carbon capture, and adaptation strategies.
UPSC has asked questions from themes like BIMSTEC by linking old groupings like SAARC with emerging ones like BIMSTEC. The 2022 question on BIMSTEC vs SAARC is a perfect example. The challenge for aspirants is not the lack of facts—it’s the struggle to connect headlines with deeper foreign policy themes. They remember the Bangkok Vision 2030 or India’s push for maritime links, but they miss the underlying issues like how India’s dominance creates discomfort (see: “India-Centric Perception”) or how BIMSTEC is now trying to fill the void SAARC couldn’t (see: “Overcoming SAARC’s Limitations”).
This article helps you connect the dots. It doesn’t just tell you what happened at the Summit—it shows you why it matters. For example, when it explains how the “BIMSTEC FTA remains stalled despite decades of negotiation,” it reminds you to think about implementation failure—a key theme in UPSC.
The best part? It ties everything back to the syllabus without sounding robotic. Topics like “Human Capital” and “Strategic Role in the Indo-Pacific” aren’t left floating. They’re linked with India’s larger goals, like the Act East policy or Neighbourhood First, and brought down to examples you can actually remember (like “BODHI” training or the Andaman & Nicobar maritime plan).
This article helps you understand BIMSTEC not just as a regional grouping but as a reflection of India’s evolving foreign policy. UPSC often frames questions by comparing older frameworks like SAARC with newer ones like BIMSTEC, as seen in the 2022 paper. The challenge is not recalling facts like the Bangkok Vision 2030 or maritime goals, but connecting them to deeper issues such as India’s dominant role or BIMSTEC’s effort to succeed where SAARC failed.
This article does that clearly. It explains why the stalled BIMSTEC FTA matters and highlights key syllabus themes like human capital and Indo-Pacific strategy. It links them to policies like Act East and Neighbourhood First through real examples like BODHI training and the Andaman maritime plan.
PYQ ANCHORING
GS 2: Do you think that BIMSTEC is a parallel organisation like the SAARC? What are the similarities and dissimilarities between the two? How are Indian foreign policy objectives realized by forming this new organisation? [2022]
MICROTHEME: Groupings involving Immediate and Extended neighbours
“The world is watching Asia, and BIMSTEC must step up to the challenge.”
This quote from Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi reflects the rising importance of regional cooperation in Asia.At the 6th BIMSTEC Summit, India took the lead with bold plans like the Bangkok Vision 2030, aiming to make the region more connected and prosperous. The focus was on things like improving maritime shipping and digital payments, plus setting up centers for skill development and disaster management.
India’s push includes a variety of initiatives in trade, security, and culture—but BIMSTEC still faces major challenges. The group has struggled with weak trade ties, political disagreements, and China’s influence.
So, where does BIMSTEC go from here? Can the Summit really make a difference? Is India’s leadership inclusive or too focused on its own interests?Can BIMSTEC fill the gaps left by SAARC and work alongside ASEAN?
6th BIMSTEC Summit: Highlights & India’s Lead
Key Outcomes
Bangkok Vision 2030: Push for a prosperous, resilient, and open BIMSTEC by 2030.
Maritime Transport Pact: Boosts regional shipping links and cuts trade costs.
India-Led Initiatives
Area
Initiatives
Human Capital
BODHI: Skill training at Nalanda University & Forest Research Institute
Institution Building
Centres of Excellence on disaster mgmt, maritime transport, medicine & farming
Trade & Economy
Study on local currency trade; proposed BIMSTEC Chamber of Commerce
Security & Space
India to host 1st Home Ministers’ Meet on cybercrime, terrorism, space ties
Culture & Youth
Young Leaders’ Summit, BIMSTEC Games (2027), Music Festival
Energy & Infra
BIMSTEC Energy Centre (Bengaluru); proposal for regional electric grid
Digital Finance
Pilot on linking India’s UPI with BIMSTEC for inclusive digital payments
India’s Strategy to Reinvigorate BIMSTEC
Focus Area
India’s Approach
Stronger Regional Trade
Fast-tracking the BIMSTEC FTA and easing trade barriers.
Targeted Diplomacy
Deepening ties with Thailand, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka to build trust.
Leading by Example
Proposing visa relaxations and tariff cuts to boost tourism and trade.
Maritime Growth
Developing the Andaman & Nicobar Islands as a strategic hub.
Port & Regulation Reform
Modernizing eastern ports and standardizing maritime laws for better connectivity.
BIMSTEC: Filling the Gaps Left by SAARC and ASEAN
BIMSTEC was set up in 1997 to fill the gaps left by existing groups like SAARC and ASEAN. While these organizations were already active, BIMSTEC was seen as a fresh platform to connect South and Southeast Asia, tackling issues that go beyond regional borders.
Reason
Explanation
Example
Geographic Connectivity
Connects both South and Southeast Asia, focusing on the Bay of Bengal region.
The India-Myanmar-Thailand Highway enhancing connectivity between India and Southeast Asia.
Overcoming SAARC’s Limitations
SAARC struggled with political tensions, especially between India and Pakistan.
BIMSTEC excluded Pakistan, allowing for more focused cooperation among its members.
A Broader Economic Focus
Unlike ASEAN, which primarily focused on economic growth, BIMSTEC also emphasizes social and technical cooperation.
BIMSTEC’s focus on maritime cooperation and the energy sector, like the BIMSTEC Energy Centre in Bengaluru.
Strategic Role in the Indo-Pacific
BIMSTEC provides a platform for India to strengthen its influence in the Indo-Pacific.
India’s ‘Act East’ policy aligns with BIMSTEC’s strategic role, especially in maritime security.
Environmental Collaboration
BIMSTEC addresses regional environmental and disaster management concerns.
BIMSTEC’s Disaster Management Exercises (DMEx) and regional climate resilience efforts.
Underdeveloped Infrastructure
BIMSTEC’s focus on infrastructure projects like roads, ports, and energy is crucial for the region’s growth.
Development of Sittwe Port in Myanmar and regional energy grid projects to boost connectivity.
Avoiding ASEAN’s Overextension
ASEAN’s broader regional focus sometimes limits attention on specific South Asian issues, which BIMSTEC addresses.
BIMSTEC’s tailored approach to regional challenges like cross-border terrorism and maritime security.
BIMSTEC was designed to address the gaps and specific needs that were not fully served by SAARC and ASEAN, offering a more focused, practical framework for regional cooperation.
BIMSTEC: Struggle to Take Off after a 25-Year Journey
BIMSTEC was meant to connect South and Southeast Asia—but 25+ years on, it’s mostly talk, not action. Weak structure, patchy political will, and shallow economic ties keep it from becoming a real force. Here’s a quick look at what’s holding it back, with real-world examples.
Issue Area
Challenge
Examples / Specifics
1. Structural and Institutional Gaps
Lack of Permanent Secretariat
BIMSTEC Secretariat was only established in 2014, 17 years after its formation in 1997.
Even today, it remains under-resourced and lacks institutional memory compared to ASEAN’s Jakarta HQ.
Only 5 summits in 26 years; the 5th Summit was held in 2022 after a 4-year gap.
Weak Legal Framework
No binding charter until 2022, limiting enforceability of decisions.
BIMSTEC Charter adopted only recently; ASEAN had one by its 10th year.
2. Political and Strategic Disconnect
Varying Strategic Interests
Member countries prioritize different regional groupings.
Thailand leans towards ASEAN; Sri Lanka and Bangladesh focus on SAARC and bilateral ties.
India-Centric Perception
Seen as a tool for India’s strategic outreach, not a shared vision.
India’s BBIN projects often bypass BIMSTEC frameworks, breeding scepticism among members.
China’s Shadow
Members are cautious due to Chinese economic influence.
Myanmar and Thailand are deeply integrated into China’s Belt and Road Initiative.
3. Economic and Functional Weaknesses
Poor Trade Integration
Intra-BIMSTEC trade is only ~7% of total trade among members.
BIMSTEC FTA remains stalled despite decades of negotiation.
Lack of Connectivity Projects
Physical and digital connectivity remains fragmented.
Kaladan project delayed for years; Motor Vehicle Agreement yet to be finalized.
Sectoral Overload
Too many sectors without prioritization dilutes focus.
BIMSTEC expanded to 14 sectors; now trying to rationalize to 7 key sectors post-2022.
Influence of Non-Members on BIMSTEC Dynamics
Geopolitical Competition: Countries like China and the US influence BIMSTEC indirectly by strengthening ties with member states through economic or military partnerships, creating a competitive environment. For example, China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has drawn countries like Sri Lanka and Myanmar into its orbit, potentially diverting focus from BIMSTEC’s regional cooperation agenda.
Economic Partnerships: Non-member countries, especially from ASEAN and the West, often provide trade opportunities and investments that can overshadow BIMSTEC’s efforts. This can divert the region’s focus from intra-regional cooperation to external partnerships, as seen with India’s “Act East” policy aimed at increasing trade ties with ASEAN.
Strategic Alliances: The presence of external powers in South Asia, particularly the US and China, often influences member states’ policies and alignment. For instance, India’s rivalry with China in the region impacts BIMSTEC’s ability to adopt a unified stance on security and economic issues, as member states might align with or be swayed by external powers’ interests.
Soft Power: Countries like Japan and Australia, which are not part of BIMSTEC but engage with its members, often influence the bloc’s priorities through development assistance, technology transfer, and diplomatic support. Their involvement often shapes regional projects such as infrastructure development or disaster management efforts, impacting BIMSTEC’s project focus.
Security Concerns: External powers with security interests in the region, like the US, influence BIMSTEC by pushing for enhanced counter-terrorism, maritime security, and cybersecurity collaboration, which can align with their broader strategic goals in the Indo-Pacific. This can shift BIMSTEC’s priorities toward these issues, sometimes at the cost of economic or social initiatives.
In essence, while BIMSTEC is designed to foster regional cooperation, external powers play a significant role in shaping its trajectory, sometimes pushing the bloc’s agenda toward broader geopolitical and economic interests.
Way Forward
Leverage Regional Synergies: Harness the diverse resources of BIMSTEC members for optimal regional cooperation, fostering a stronger, more dynamic bloc.
Diplomatic Engagement: Engage in sustained bilateral and multilateral dialogues to prevent political issues, like the Rohingya crisis, from hindering progress. India should maintain strong ties with Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh to ensure stable relations.
Myanmar’s Engagement: India and members must navigate Myanmar’s political instability cautiously until it stabilizes, ensuring balanced cooperation.
Boost Connectivity: Focus on the FTA, coastal shipping, and electricity grid connectivity to drive regional trade. Securing timely project funding and implementation is essential.
India’s Leadership: India must lead by offering funding and supporting initiatives like the Eminent Persons Group (EPG) to create a vision document, addressing power imbalances and facilitating trade.
Future Areas of Focus: Expand focus to new areas like the blue economy, digital economy, and MSME collaborations to foster sustainable growth.
#BACK2BASICS: BIMSTEC
BIMSTEC (Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation) was created in 1997 as a bridge between South and Southeast Asia—offering an alternative to SAARC, which has been paralyzed by regional rivalries (e.g., India-Pakistan tension). It connects countries around the Bay of Bengal to promote trade, security, and connectivity.
BIMSTEC at a Glance
Aspect
Details
Established
1997 via the Bangkok Declaration
Members
7 – Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Thailand
Core Goal
Regional cooperation in trade, security, energy, and development
Why BIMSTEC Matters to India
Area
Relevance
Strategic Leverage
Strengthens India’s Act East & Neighbourhood First policies (connects to ASEAN via Thailand & Myanmar)
Economic Ties
Push for BIMSTEC FTA to boost trade and value chains (India is largest economy in group)
BIMSTEC Energy Centre supports regional power grids and clean energy planning
Northeast Access
Projects like Sittwe Port and India-Myanmar-Thailand Highway ease Siliguri Corridor pressure
Geopolitical Reach
Expands India’s Indo-Pacific influence without SAARC roadblocks
What’s Holding BIMSTEC back?
Challenge Type
Problem
Example
Structural
Weak Secretariat, poor funding
Secretariat in Dhaka lacks teeth
Slow Execution
Key deals like FTA & connectivity projects are stuck
FTA talks drag on since 2004
Political Volatility
Domestic instability in members disrupts planning
Coup in Myanmar, crisis in Sri Lanka
Split Focus
Some members favour ASEAN, SAARC or bilateral ties over BIMSTEC
Thailand leans towards ASEAN
Unequal Ownership
Varying commitment levels slow down collective momentum
India leads, others often passive
Funding Gaps
Low financial contribution hampers implementation of big projects
Few large-scale infra projects completed
Why BIMSTEC is a Better Alternative to SAARC?
SAARC Limitations
BIMSTEC Advantages
India-Pakistan tensions hinder cooperation.
Pakistan’s exclusion leads to no political deadlock.
Limited progress on connectivity.
Projects like the BBIN Motor Vehicle Agreement and IMT Highway are active.
Minimal security cooperation.
Enhanced security and maritime cooperation are promoted.
Insufficient trade integration.
Working towards Free Trade Agreement, energy cooperation, and digital economy linkages.
No significant leadership initiative.
India takes a proactive leadership role.
SMASH MAINS MOCK DROP
BIMSTEC as a regional grouping holds strategic and economic importance for South Asia and Southeast Asia. Analyze the challenges and opportunities faced by BIMSTEC in enhancing regional cooperation.
India’s main financial regulators — the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) — have, for the first time, created clear step-by-step procedures for how they will create and update their rules.
What procedural reforms have the RBI and SEBI recently introduced in regulation-making?
Mandatory Public Consultation: Both RBI and SEBI now require a 21-day window for public feedback before finalizing regulations. Eg: When SEBI proposes changes to investment guidelines, stakeholders can submit suggestions during this consultation period.
Introduction of Impact Analysis and Regulatory Objectives: RBI must conduct an impact analysis to assess the effect of new regulations. SEBI must state the regulatory intent and objectives behind any proposed rule. Eg: Before introducing digital lending norms, RBI must assess how it affects NBFCs and consumers.
Periodic Review of Existing Regulations: Both regulators are now required to periodically review existing laws to ensure relevance and effectiveness. E.g.:SEBI may revisit earlier mutual fund rules to assess if they align with current market dynamics.
Why is identifying economic rationale important for regulatory interventions?
Targets Actual Market Failures: Ensures that regulations are introduced to solve real economic issues, not just perceived ones. Eg: RBI introducing regulations on digital lending platforms to tackle predatory lending practices.
Improves Resource Allocation: Helps in the efficient use of regulatory capacity and government resources by focusing only where intervention is necessary. Eg: SEBI focusing surveillance on high-risk investment products rather than low-risk ones.
Enables Evidence-Based Policy Making: Economic rationale demands data-backed decision-making, leading to more robust and defensible policies. Eg: Mandating minimum capital buffers after analysing risk exposure in banks post-2008 crisis.
Strengthens Cost-Benefit Analysis: Clarifies whether the expected benefits outweigh the compliance and administrative costs. Eg: Before enforcing stricter disclosure norms, SEBI can evaluate if the benefits to investors justify the burden on companies.
Increases Public and Stakeholder Trust: When the rationale is transparent, it builds confidence in the regulator’s objectivity and fairness. Eg: Clearly stating economic reasoning behind banning front-running in trading enhances credibility.
How do international practices like those in the US and EU guide regulatory impact assessment?
Mandatory Cost-Benefit Analysis: US regulators must evaluate the economic impact of any regulation before adoption to ensure benefits outweigh costs. Eg: The Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) reviews federal regulations to minimize economic burdens.
Problem Identification and Alternatives Assessment: The EU’s Better Regulation Framework requires identifying the core problem, evaluating alternative policy options, and selecting the most effective one. Eg: EU energy efficiency regulations involved assessing multiple alternatives before finalizing appliance labeling norms.
Monitoring and Evaluation Frameworks: Both the US and EU emphasize post-implementation reviews to check if regulations achieve intended goals. Eg: The EU conducts ex-post evaluations as part of its regulatory cycle to ensure continuous improvement.
When should regulations be reviewed and why?
At Pre-defined and Regular Intervals: Regulations should be reviewed periodically (e.g., every 3 years) to assess continued relevance. Eg: The IFSCA mandates review of its regulations every 3 years to align with changing market needs.
After Significant Economic or Sectoral Changes: Major changes like market failures, technological advancements, or crises should trigger a regulatory review. Eg: The COVID-19 pandemic led to a re-evaluation of financial sector norms to support liquidity and credit flow.
To Evaluate Effectiveness and Stakeholder Impact: Reviews help assess whether regulations have achieved their intended goals and consider public feedback. Eg: SEBI may review listing regulations based on feedback from companies and investors to enhance market transparency.
Who can ensure uniform regulatory standards in India?
Parliament through Enactment of a Common Law: Parliament can introduce a standardised law (similar to the U.S. Administrative Procedure Act) to ensure consistent regulatory practices like impact assessments, public consultations, and periodic reviews across all regulators. Eg: A central Regulation-Making Procedure Act could mandate that all financial regulators follow uniform protocols.
Government Agencies Issuing Common Guidelines: The Central Government or NITI Aayog can issue model guidelines or frameworks to harmonise regulation-making procedures among regulators. Eg: Like the UK and Canada, India can adopt unified regulatory guidelines to promote transparency and accountability across SEBI, RBI, IFSCA, etc.
Way forward:
Enact a Unified Regulatory Procedure Law: Parliament should legislate a comprehensive framework for regulation-making that mandates impact analysis, public consultation, and periodic review across all regulators to ensure transparency and consistency.
Strengthen Institutional Capacity and Oversight: Build the capacity of regulatory bodies through training, digital tools, and staffing, and set up an independent oversight mechanism to monitor compliance with procedural norms and ensure accountability.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] “Citizens’ Charter is an ideal instrument of organizational transparency and accountability, but it has its own limitations. Identify the limitations and suggest measures for greater effectiveness or the Citizens Charter.”
Linkage: The theme of “consultative regulation-making that should go further” as discussed in “Crafting India’s Regulatory Future”. In the article primarily discusses financial regulators and the PYQ addresses the Citizens’ Charter, both embody the fundamental principle of existing governance mechanisms needing to evolve and be strengthened to achieve their stated objectives of transparency, accountability, and more effective public engagement, moving beyond a “nascent stage” or “welcome start” to truly “go further.”
After Operation Sindoor, India’s military strike against Pakistan in May, there has been a lot of talk about strategy — but it has also given a strong boost to India’s defence sector, especially to private companies and small businesses (MSMEs) involved in defence manufacturing.
What impact did Operation Sindoor have on the performance of defence company stocks?
Sharp Rise in Defence Stocks: Defence company stocks surged by nearly 21% in the week when India conducted Operation Sindoor, significantly outperforming the broader market’s 3.1% rise in the Nifty50 index during the same period.
Sustained Positive Momentum: In the week following Operation Sindoor, defence stocks continued to rise by 5.4%, whereas the Nifty50 index actually declined by 0.5%, showing sustained investor confidence in the defence sector.
Reversal of Previous Underperformance: Before Operation Sindoor, defence stocks were lagging behind the top 50 companies on the National Stock Exchange, but the operation acted as a catalyst that boosted their performance substantially.
Why is the growth in India’s defence production and exports significant?
Enhances Self-Reliance: The growth signals India’s increasing capability to produce defence equipment domestically, reducing dependence on imports. Eg, defence production reached a record ₹1.3 lakh crore in FY24, showing strong progress in indigenous manufacturing.
Boosts Economic and Strategic Strength: Rising defence exports, which have doubled since FY20 and crossed ₹20,000 crore in recent years, help strengthen India’s global defence market presence and contribute to economic growth. The government’s export target of ₹30,000 crore for the current fiscal reflects this ambition.
Encourages Innovation and Industry Growth: Sustained double-digit growth since FY22 encourages innovation and investment in defence technology, benefiting both public and private sectors.
How have private companies and MSMEs contributed to India’s defence sector in recent years?
Growing Share in Defence Production: Private defence companies increased their share of total defence production from about 20% in FY17 to nearly 24% in FY25, showing their expanding role in the sector. Eg, companies like Paras Defence and Space Technologies have become prominent players.
Leading Role in Defence Exports: Private firms now account for the majority share of defence exports due to export authorisations, helping India expand its footprint in the global defence market. Eg, several private companies contribute to exports of small arms and protective gear.
MSMEs as Key Component Suppliers: MSMEs supply crucial components to the defence industry, with government procurement from MSMEs doubling the target to ₹13,000 crore in FY25. Eg, MSMEs provided goods worth around ₹3,000 crore between FY18 and FY20, with larger orders thereafter.
When did defence production begin steady growth?
Defence production contracted by 2.5% in FY20 (pre-pandemic).
Since FY22, defence production has been seeing consistent double-digit growth.
The growth momentum continues with production touching nearly ₹90,000 crore by December 2024 against a target of ₹1.6 lakh crore for FY25.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
Promoting Domestic Manufacturing: The government has set ambitious targets to boost indigenous defence production, encouraging self-reliance. Eg, defence production crossed ₹1.3 lakh crore in FY24 and is targeted at ₹1.6 lakh crore in FY25.
Supporting MSMEs through Procurement: Mandatory public procurement targets have been set to ensure MSMEs receive steady orders and support. Eg, goods worth ₹13,000 crore were procured from MSMEs in FY25, more than double the target.
Encouraging Private Sector Participation: Policies have facilitated the growing involvement of private companies in defence production and exports. Eg, private companies increased their production share from 20% in FY17 to nearly 24% in FY25, and dominate defence exports.
Way forward:
Enhance Technology Upgradation and Innovation: Invest more in R&D and foster collaboration between public and private sectors to develop cutting-edge defence technologies, ensuring global competitiveness and self-reliance.
Strengthen MSME Integration and Export Support: Expand financial and policy support to MSMEs for scaling up production capacity and quality, and create dedicated export facilitation mechanisms to boost India’s defence exports further.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2014] Defence manufacturing in India is still in a nascent stage. What influence this is expected to have on Indian defence and economy in the short and long run?
Linkage: Recent data from the article clearly demonstrates a significant “fillip” in India’s defence production, directly linked with the “nascent stage” described in the 2014 PYQ. This 2014 question is highly relevant as it highlights a past perception that “defence manufacturing in India is still in a nascent stage. In this articel, the discussions on the efficacy and confidence in India’s home-grown defence capabilities have increased. Following “Operation Sindoor,” defence stocks of 18 companies on the Nifty Defence Index rose by almost 21% in a week in May, significantly outperforming the Nifty50 index.
In a major achievement for adult education in India, Mizoram and Goa have declared themselves “fully literate” under the ULLAS Scheme (Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society).
What does “Fully Literate” mean under ULLAS?
As per the Ministry of Education (August 2024):
A person is literate if they can read, write, and compute with comprehension, including essential life skills.
A state is considered fully literate if it achieves 95% literacy or more.
This aligns with the National Education Policy, 2020 and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) target of achieving universal youth and adult literacy by 2030.
About the ULLAS Scheme:
Launch: It is a centrally sponsoredscheme launched in 2022.
Vision: It is based on the spirit of ‘Kartvya Bodh’ (DUTY) and is being implemented through volunteerism.
Official Name: It is formally known as the New India Literacy Programme and is being implemented over a five-year period (2022–2027).
Core Objective: The scheme aims to provide foundational literacy and numeracy to 5 crore non-literate individuals aged 15 years and above.
Key Learning Components:
Beyond Basics: In addition to reading, writing, and arithmetic, learners are taught critical life skills, such as financial literacy and digital literacy.
Beneficiary Identification: Individuals are identified through door-to-door surveys conducted by schools and local officials across states and UTs.
Volunteer Teaching Model: Teaching is provided by volunteers, including school and college students, teacher trainees, and community members.
Learning Support and Certification:
Learning Materials: The NCERT develops the core content, which is translated and adapted into 22 languages of India by state authorities.
Digital and Offline Modes: A mobile app supports the learning process, though offline teaching is also included for inclusive access.
Assessment Process: Learners appear for the Functional Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test (FLNAT) — a 150-mark exam in multiple languages.
Certification: Those who pass the FLNAT are certified by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) for achieving basic literacy and numeracy.
Key Achievements on Full Literacy under ULLAS:
State Declarations:
Ladakh: First region to be declared fully literate (June 2024)
Goa: Declared fully literate with 99.72% literacy
Mizoram: Declared fully literate with 98.2% literacy
Performance Insights:
100% pass rate in Goa and Tamil Nadu
Over 95% in Punjab, Assam, UP
Women-majority participation in several states (over 70% in Mizoram, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu, etc.)
Historical Context: ULLAS Scheme builds on earlier adult literacy programs such as:
Saakshar Bharat (2009–2018)
National Literacy Mission (1988–2009)
National Adult Education Programme (1970s–1980s)
[UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements: As per 2001 Census:
1. the two States with the lowest sex ratio are Haryana and Punjab. 2. the two States with the lowest population per sq. km of area are Meghalaya and Mizoram. 3. Kerala has both the highest literacy rate and sex ratio.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 3 only* (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1 and 3
IIT Gandhinagar researchers have found evidence that humans lived in the Great Rann of Kutch 5,000 years before the Harappans, likely as coastal hunter-gatherers.
About the Khadir Island Sites:
Location: Khadir Island (Khadir Beyt) is in the Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, near the well-known Harappan site of Dholavira.
Geographic Context: The island is one of 6 that were surrounded by water 5,000–6,000 years ago, due to higher sea levels.
Discovery Site: In 2016, researchers discovered archaeological remains near Bambhanka, about 1 km from Dholavira.
Site Features: Findings include house complexes, broken potsherds, marine shells, carnelian and agate flakes, and wall remnants made from random rubble masonry.
Shell Deposits: A 30–40 cm thick shell deposit was found on a hillock’s western edge, exposed by a pipeline trench. Similar shells were first reported in 1872 by geologist Arthur Beavor Wynne.
Shell Species: The Terebralia palustris shell species indicates a mangrove ecosystem once existed here.
Other Sites: Additional shell midden sites were discovered at Laungwali, Kunduwari, Ganeshpar, and Janan, mostly located 2–2.5 km from the coast.
Key Findings:
Archaeological Significance:
Evidence suggests prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived here 7,000–7,500 years ago, before the Harappans.
Carbon dating of 15 shell samples shows they are 5,000–5,500 years older than Harappan remains.
A 400–500 year time lag may exist due to shellfish diets, meaning actual dates could be older.
Diet and Food Practices:
Broken shell middens and discoloured shells suggest people cooked and ate shellfish.
The diet likely included plants, fruits, tubers, and nuts, though no plant remains have yet been found.
Lifestyle and Settlement:
These were mobile hunter-gatherers, not permanent agriculturalists.
They likely moved seasonally, occupying each site for part of the year.
Tool Use:
Stone tools (flakes and cores) made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, basalt, limestone, and quartzite were found.
Smaller fragments may have served as arrow tips.
Agate, found locally, and other materials suggest trade or resource mobility.
Trade and Cultural Links:
Non-local tool stones indicate exchange networks.
Similarities with tools from Las Bela (Pakistan) and coastal Oman point to long-distance prehistoric connections across the northern Arabian Sea.
[UPSC 2021] Consider the following pairs:
Historical place : Well known for
1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines
2. Chandraketugarh :Terracotta art
3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3*
According to a new World Bank report, extreme poverty in India has fallen from 27.1% in 2011–12 to just 5.3% in 2022–23, based on a revised international poverty line.
Understanding World Bank’s Poverty Lines:
The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than a fixed amount per person per day, adjusted using Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) to account for inflation and cost of living.
PPP compares currencies by showing how much money is needed in different countries to buy the same goods. It helps measure real cost of living and economic strength.
Previous thresholds:
$1.90 per day (2011 PPP)
$2.15 per day (2017 PPP)
Revised in June 2025:
Low-income countries: $3 per day
Lower middle-income countries (LMIC): $4.20 per day (up from $3.65)
Upper middle-income countries: $8.40 per day (up from $6.85)
Why it matters: These new thresholds help track progress in poverty reduction and align better with today’s economic conditions.
India’s Progress and Challenges:
Reduction in Poverty:
At the $3/day level, poverty dropped from 27.1% (2011–12) to 5.3% (2022–23).
At the $2.15/day level, poverty fell from 16.2% to 2.3%, lifting 171 million people.
At the $4.20/day level, poverty declined from 61.8% to 28.1%, benefiting 378 million people.
Rural-Urban Trends:
Rural poverty dropped from 69% to 32.5%, and urban poverty from 43.5% to 17.2%.
The rural-urban gap narrowed from 25 to 15 percentage points.
Inequality Measures:
Consumption inequality improved (Gini fell from 28.8 to 25.5).
Income inequality, however, worsened (Gini rose from 52 to 62).
Employment Trends:
Since 2021–22, employment growth has outpaced the working-age population.
Urban unemployment dropped to 6.6%, the lowest since 2017–18, but youth unemployment remains high at 13.3%, and 29% among graduates.
State-Level Dynamics:
UP, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and MP contributed to 65% of the extreme poor (2011–12) and now represent 54% of the remaining poor.
Multidimensional Poverty:
Declined significantly from 53.8% in 2005–06 to 15.5% in 2022–23, reflecting progress in health, education, and living standards.
[UPSC 2019] In a given year in India, official poverty lines are higher in some States than in others because:
Options: (a) poverty rates vary from State to State (b) price levels vary from State to State* (c) Gross State Product varies from State to State (d) quality of public distribution varies from State to State
IIT Kharagpur has made a web app called Dynamic Route Planning for Urban Green Mobility (DRUM) to help people choose travel routes that are not just fast but also have cleaner air and better energy use.
About DRUM:
Purpose: It is a navigation tool that prioritises air quality and energy efficiency, offering a greener alternative to traditional mapping apps.
Data Usage: DRUM uses real-time data on air pollution and traffic conditions to recommend optimal routes.
Routing Logic: DRUM applies a rank-based elimination method that prioritizes time, followed by distance, pollution exposure, and energy use.
Technical Tools: The app uses GraphHopper for route generation and Mapbox for live traffic updates.
Route Options: Users can choose from 5 routes — shortest, fastest, least pollution (LEAP), least energy use (LECR), and a balanced suggested route.
Live Updates: It retrieves real-time route data when a query is entered, not through scheduled updates.
Performance: In Delhi trials, the LEAP route cut pollution exposure by over 50%, and the LECR route reduced energy use by up to 28%.
Non-Motorized Inclusion: DRUM will expand to serve cyclists, pedestrians, and other non-motorized users.
Predictive Upgrade: DRUM 2.0, currently in development, will use machine learning to forecast pollution and traffic and recommend best routes and departure times.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following types of vehicles:
I. Full battery electric vehicles II. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles III. Fuel cell electric hybrid vehicles How many of the above are considered as alternative (powertrain) vehicles?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None
