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  • Why the Supreme Court allowed a review of its 2022 judgment on ‘Shamlat deh’ land rights

    Why in the News?

    To protect the rights of village landowners in Haryana, the Supreme Court has permitted a review of a 2022 judgment by Justices Hemant Gupta and V Ramasubramanian that allowed gram panchayats to acquire ‘shamlat deh’ land.

    Context:

    What is ‘Shamlat deh’?

    • It refers to common land in the village, formed by multiple landowners each contributing an equal portion of their holdings to serve the “common purposes” of the village community. It is kept aside for common use in villages, as part of the Punjab Land Revenue Act of 1887.
    • Article 31A was inserted by the First Amendment Act of 1951 in the Indian Constitution. It aimed to protect laws related to agrarian reforms and the acquisition of estates.
    • According to the Supreme Court (April 2022), such land should be utilized by panchayats only for the needs of villagers. No part of the land can be re-partitioned amongst the proprietors, and such land would not be available for sale.
    • A Bench of Justices B R Gavai and Sandeep Mehta reopened the challenge to the 1992 amendment on May 17, 2024, after observing that the 2022 decision disregarded an important and relevant Constitution Bench decision in the case of Bhagat Ram vs State of Punjab (1967).

    Bhagat Ram: Clarifying the Meaning of Land Acquisition under Article 31A:

    • In 1967, a five-judge Bench reviewed a land consolidation scheme for the village of Dolike Sunderpur that reserved lands for common purposes and diverted the income to the panchayat.
      • Landowners’ Argument: The scheme violated the second provision of Article 31A, which prevents acquiring land below the ceiling limit without compensation at market value.
      • State’s Argument: The reservation for the panchayat was not land acquisition since the income would benefit the village.
    • Ajit Singh v State of Punjab (1967): Distinguished land acquisition from modification or extinguishment of land rights.
    • SC Decision: The panchayat was effectively acquiring land by reserving its income, making the state the beneficiary. The court ruled that the second provision of Article 31A applied. Punjab argued the acquisition predated the 17th amendment, but the SC noted the scheme’s implementation was stayed, hence possession and control had not been transferred.

    Does Shamlat Land Belong to the Landowners or the Panchayat?

    • In 2003, the Punjab and Haryana High Court reviewed a challenge to the 1992 amendment to the Punjab Act that vested control of ‘shamlat deh’ land in Haryana with the gram panchayat.
    • Petitioners’ Argument: The Landowners however argued that the amendment did not allow panchayats to control the land for common purposes without compensation, violating Article 31A.
    • High Court Decision: The court distinguished between land reserved for common purposes under the Consolidation Act (vested with the gram panchayat) and land contributed by proprietors but not reserved under the consolidation scheme (which could not vest with the panchayat without compensation).
      • The decision relied on the SC’s Bhagat Ram ruling that acquiring land without compensation violates the second proviso of Article 31A.

    SC Allows Review of 2022 Judgment:

    • The 2022 Supreme Court decision by Justices Gupta and Ramasubramanian overruled the 2003 High Court decision, finding no need for compensation as Article 31 had been omitted. The court ruled that the panchayat merely managed the land on behalf of landholders and that control was vested in the panchayat upon assignment.
    • Karnail Singh Review: Justices Gavai and Mehta reopened the challenge, noting the 2022 decision’s cursory reference to Bhagat Ram without addressing why the High Court’s reliance on it was wrong.
      • The court found that ignoring a Constitution Bench decision was a manifest error, justifying a review.
    • Recalled the 2022 SC decision: The 2022 decision was recalled, and the challenge to the 2003 High Court decision was set to be reheard, starting on August 7, 2024.

    Way Forward:

    • Need Comprehensive Judicial Reviews: Conduct detailed reviews of prior relevant judgments to provide clear, well-founded reasoning in court decisions.
    • Need Clear Compensation Guidelines: Establish explicit guidelines for compensation in land acquisition cases, particularly those involving common land like ‘shamlat deh’, to protect landowners’ rights.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 has come into effect from Ist January 2014. What are the key issues which would get addressed with the Act in place? What implications would it have on industrialization and agriculture in India? (UPSC IAS/2014)

  • Going glacier gone: How Venezuela lost its last glacier, why this matters?

    Why in the News?

    Venezuela has likely become the first country to lose all its glaciers, with its last Humboldt glacier melting faster than anticipated. While scientists projected it to last another decade, its rapid melting exceeded expectations.

    Background:

    • Venezuela was home to six glaciers about 5,000 meters above sea level in the Andes mountains.
    • By 2011, five of them had vanished. Scientists expected the Humboldt glacier to last another decade.

    What are glaciers?

    • Glaciers are large masses of ice that form on land over long periods through the accumulation and compaction of snow. They flow like slow rivers and typically develop in regions with near-freezing temperatures, significant snowfall, and minimal summer melting.
    • According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), they usually exist and form in areas where mean annual temperatures reach near the freezing point; winter precipitation leads to significant snow accumulations; and temperatures throughout the remaining year do not cause the complete loss of the previous winter’s snow accumulation.

    Why are Glaciers disappearing?

    • Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The burning of fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution have released large amounts of GHGs like carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.
    • Heat Trapping: The greenhouse gases act as a blanket, trapping heat in the atmosphere. While they allow sunlight to pass through, they prevent the heat from escaping back into space, leading to a rise in global temperatures.
      • The global average temperature has increased by at least 1.1 degrees Celsius since 1880 due to the skyrocketing emissions of GHGs in recent decades.
    • Consequences of Temperature Rise: The temperature rise has resulted in devastating consequences such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, floods, droughts, and a rise in sea levels.
    • Accelerated Melting: Glaciers, like ice cubes exposed to heat, are melting at accelerated rates due to the warmer temperatures caused by global warming.
    • Natural Climate Phenomena: Natural climate phenomena like El Nino can exacerbate glacier melting by causing abnormal warming of surface waters, as observed in the case of the Humboldt glacier in Venezuela.

    What are the impacts of Glacier Loss?

    • Freshwater Source: Glaciers are crucial sources of freshwater, especially during hot and dry periods, providing water for local communities, plants, and animals. Their disappearance would increase dependence on sporadic rainfall for freshwater supply.
    • Temperature Regulation: Glacial runoff helps regulate downstream water temperatures, particularly keeping them cooler. This is essential for many aquatic species that require cold water temperatures to survive, impacting the entire ecosystem.
    • Ecosystem Impact: Glacier loss directly affects aquatic species, disrupting the food web and potentially leading to declines in biodiversity.
    • Contribution to Sea Level Rise: Melting glaciers contribute to rising sea levels, although smaller glaciers like Venezuela’s Humboldt glacier may not substantially impact sea levels.
    • Cultural Impact: The loss of glaciers has significant cultural implications, particularly for communities where glaciers are part of their cultural identity. Activities such as mountaineering and tourism, which rely on glaciers, would be affected.
    • Tourism and Recreation: Glaciers are often major tourist attractions, drawing visitors for activities like mountaineering and sightseeing. The disappearance of glaciers would impact tourism and recreational activities in affected regions.

    Way Forward: 

    • International Cooperation: Foster collaboration among countries to tackle climate change on a global scale. Support international agreements such as the Paris Agreement, aimed at limiting global warming and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
    • Protect and Preserve Glacier Areas: Establish and enforce conservation measures to protect glacier regions from further degradation. This can involve creating protected areas, implementing zoning regulations, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Bring out the relationship between the shrinking Himalayan glaciers and the symptoms of climate change in the Indian sub-continent. (UPSC IAS/2014)

  • [Working Junta Webinar] FINAL NOTES – Pre+Mains (Integrated) Notes Making Strategy for Working Professionals

    [Working Junta Webinar] FINAL NOTES – Pre+Mains (Integrated) Notes Making Strategy for Working Professionals

    Learn the effective Notes Making strategy as a working professional + FREE Handwritten Notes of Animesh (AIR 2) from Diksha Ma’am (Mentor of Anjana, AIR 134, UAP Student)

    Join FREE Webinar on 22nd May, 7:00 pm

    First 200 will get free mentorship session

    Register Now!

    You are a Working Professional. You decided to give the UPSC 2025 Attempt . So you visited your local Book Market, and got hold of all recommendations by toppers – NCERTs, Lakshmikant, Ramesh Singh, Value Added Material.

    You take a pledge that you will make the PERFECT NOTES in one go – and you will do that specifically for Mains – a Topper in one of his Sessions on YouTube said he only made notes for Mains!

    You took 7 days to make Notes for Internal Security – and aren’t they awesome? You can literally see those colorful pens being used for different headings.

    But wait – why are these 150 pages big? Doesn’t the book that you got from the market have similar number of pages?

    Going deeper, you realize major issues:

    1. Your Notes – While too NEAT, sound merely language with Zero specific key terms.
    2. You have used big paragraphs to write about something non-specific (Well, you at least know the History of Left-Wing Extremism – isn’t it relevant for the exam??)
    3. There are no PYQs. Which Syllabus topics are we covering? We are missing this as well. We also don’t know the recurring themes that need to be highlighted.
    4. UPSC recently asked a question related to S-400 helicopters – will we be able to answer the question using our notes?

    Till the end of the month, you are left with a replica of your two books – one is 150 pages, and the other is 300 pages of Post-Independence alone. You can’t link it to current affairs or PYQs.

    The enthusiasm slowly withers away, and your pledge to give the exam in 2025, changes to 2026, 2027, 2028…

    When one of our students did the same, we realized what an urgent need this is. This is how the notes looked like initially:

    Unclear. Strain to eyes. Non-readable with ZERO Value Add. They are literal copy-paste of books.

    This is what we turned his notes into. PRECISE. VALUE-ADDED. EXAMPLES RICH. BULLETS.

    Focus on MAPS, Acronyms, Real Life Strategies used by Bureaucrats.

    Don’t worry – it’s not your fault that you don’t know this.

    Even the best people struggle with this initially. This is because, since school and then in college, this is what we have been taught.

    Reaching a LEVEL where this can be achieved takes a minimum of 3 iterations and a timely MENTOR intervention.

    As a Working Professional, if you are not able to cope up with Notes Making, LEAVE YOUR FEARS OUT. We will help you understand the methodology. You need a framework, and a rank worthy mentor to help you do that.

    Diksha Sharma – 2 Interviews, Multiple Mains, Mentor of 50+ Rankers including AIR 134 Anjna Dahiya this year, is coming with a Webinar addressing the issue of Note Making, especially for the Working Professionals.

    Join us in our Webinar, where we will discuss an EFFECTIVE Integrated Notes Making Strategy for Working Junta.

    Register for Diksha Ma’am’s Webinar

    Register Now!

    Key outcomes of the Webinar

    A. Prerequisites of Effective Note-Making:

    1. Suit Yourself: Your notes are for you, so they can be as rough or as neat as you prefer.
    2. Be Precise but Comprehensive: Utilize short forms, bullet points, flowcharts, and diagrams to make your notes succinct yet detailed.
    3. Keep Syllabus and PYQs in Mind: Always refer to the syllabus and previous years’ questions while making notes
    4. Combine Prelims and Mains Preparation: Try to create notes that are useful for both prelims and mains.
    5. Dynamic Notes: Continuously add value to your notes with new information.

    B. Topic Deep Dive: Globalization

    1. We’ll take the topic of Globalization and demonstrate how to approach it from scratch.
    2. Learn how to break down complex topics into manageable notes.
    3. Discover techniques to make your notes relevant for both preliminary and main exams.

    Why Attend?

    1. Tailored for Working Professionals: Our strategies are designed to fit into your hectic schedule.
    2. Mentor Guidance: Get tips from experienced civil services mentors.
    3. Interactive Session: Ask questions and get real-time answers to your queries.

    Ready to attend the UPSC Webinar?

    Register Now!

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    We recommend you register here. It takes less than 10 seconds to register.

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  • [18th May 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: After the Civil War, the stifling impasse in Sri Lanka

    PYQ Relevance:
    [2022] ‘India is an age-old friend of Sri Lanka.’ Discuss India’s role in the recent crisis in Sri Lanka in light of the preceding statement. 
    [2013] In respect of India — Sri Lanka relations, discuss how domestic factors influence foreign policy. 

    Note4Students: 

    Prelims: NA 

    Mains: Disruptions in Sri Lanka’s development trajectory post the Civil War

    Mentor Comment: A decade and a half after Sri Lanka’s civil war, deep wounds persist, with tens of thousands dead and widespread destruction. Truth, accountability, and justice remain unresolved, and political polarisation hinders progress. Economic reconstruction lags, further stunted by crises. The Tamil middle class aspires to emigrate, while the working class remains destitute. 

    Let’s learn

    ___

    Why in the News?

    The future of the Tamil people relies on creating a renewed vision for themselves and the whole nation, founded on the ideals of equality and freedom.

    Back2Basics: Sri Lankan Civil WarC:\Users\SSCIS\Desktop\Imgress\ltte.jpg
    It was a protracted armed conflict that lasted for nearly three decades, from 1983 to 2009, between the government of Sri Lanka and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE).

    LTTE was a separatist militant organisation seeking an independent Tamil state in the northern and eastern regions of the island nation.
    The conflict was characterised by violence, human rights abuses, and widespread displacement of civilians.

    The LTTE, known for its guerrilla tactics and suicide bombings, controlled significant territory in the north and east of Sri Lanka and waged a violent insurgency against the government.

    Key Hindrances to Sri Lanka’s Progress

    • Limited Progress: While infrastructure like trains, banks, supermarkets, and hotels returned to the north, rural areas continue to struggle with unstable livelihoods.
    • Setback from Terror Attack: The Easter bombings in April 2019, followed by the COVID-19 pandemic and an ongoing economic crisis since 2022, have exacerbated economic hardships, marking the worst crisis since Independence.
    • Economic Crisis: Economic misery is pervasive, with outmigration and hunger becoming the norm, particularly impacting the deprived and landless in war-torn areas.

    Challenges in Reconstruction Efforts

    1. Economic Challenges
    • Failed Investments: Expectations of substantial investments from the Tamil diaspora have not materialised, failing to stimulate local economic revival.
    • International Donor Projects: Projects focused on infrastructure have not effectively revitalised the local economy, while NGO aid has sometimes led to dependency and microfinance debt traps.
    1. Political Polarisation and Neglect
    • Political Neglect: Tamil political leadership has often prioritised international accountability over addressing local livelihoods, perpetuating dependency on diaspora remittances.
    • Parallel Nationalisms: Tamil nationalist politics mirrors Sinhala nationalism, focusing on rights and international intervention, rather than fostering local reconciliation.
    • Reconciliation Challenges: Efforts towards political reconciliation and power-sharing have faltered due to political expediency, exacerbating tensions and marginalising minorities.
    • Communal polarization: Relations between Tamil and Muslim communities remain strained, with unresolved issues from historical displacements and marginalization.

    Future Prospects for Tamil People

    • V. Karalasingham’s Reflections (1963): Highlighted the paradox of Tamil leadership and the continued suffering and humiliation of Tamil-speaking people.
    • Aragalaya Movement (2022): Sri Lankans united to oust a President promoting Sinhala-Buddhist nationalism, showing potential for collective action.
    • Path to Change: Embracing inclusive politics, moving away from isolationist strategies, and advocating for economic and social justice can pave the way for a democratic future based on equality and freedom.
    India’s Economic Assistance to Sri Lanka:

    Bailout Package: During Sri Lanka’s economic crisis in 2022, India was quick to extend financial support, amounting to over USD 4 billion. This surpassed even the International Monetary Fund’s (IMF) bailout package over 48 months.

    Facilitating IMF Engagement: India’s role was instrumental in the early stages of Sri Lanka’s negotiations with the IMF. India’s Finance Minister, Mrs Sitharaman, played a significant part in these discussions, showcasing India’s commitment to its neighbour’s recovery.

    Private Investment: The expansion of the Colombo port’s west container terminal in 2023 by India’s Adani Group was a key development project.

    Cricket Diplomacy: Cricket surprisingly became a focal point, with international matches hosted in Sri Lanka, including a notable India-Pakistan game during the World Cup.

    Way Forward

    • Political Reconciliation: Advocate for genuine political reconciliation, including devolution of power and addressing historical grievances.
    • Community Integration: Foster solidarity and mutual understanding between ethnic and religious communities to promote social integration.
    • Local Empowerment: Support local initiatives and reduce dependency on external aid, empowering communities to drive their development.
    • Unified Movements: Promote movements that unite diverse groups towards common goals of justice, equality, and inclusive governance.

    https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/after-the-civil-war-the-stifling-impasse-in-sri-lanka/article68187672.ece

  • Indian manufacturing needs more sophistication: Finance Minister

    Why in the News?

    In a recent statement, the Finance Minister highlighted the pressing need for sophistication in India’s manufacturing sector to drive economic growth and competitiveness.

    • The sophisticated manufacturing sector provides a conducive environment to enhance the efficiency of producing goods and services.

    What is the current state of Indian Manufacturing?

    • India’s manufacturing sector’s Gross Value Added (GVA) as a percentage of GDP has shown an upward trend (since 2014), currently hovering around 18%. There is a consensus that to compete on a global scale, Indian manufacturing needs to evolve and embrace sophistication in its processes, technologies, and products.
    • India’s Dependency Ratio: The dependency ratio is a measure that compares the number of dependents (people who are either too young or too old to work) to the working-age population.
      • According to the Economic Survey 2018-19, India’s Demographic Dividend will peak around 2041, when the share of working-age,i.e. 20-59 years, population is expected to hit 59%.

    Importance of Sophistication in Manufacturing:

    • Leveraging the Demographic Dividend: India’s young population and low dependency ratio offer a significant advantage in terms of labor force and consumption. To capitalize on this demographic dividend, there is a strong focus on ramping up skills in the Indian workforce through initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY).
    • Enhancing Productivity and Quality: Embracing sophistication is crucial for enhancing productivity, quality, and competitiveness in the global market. By investing in technology, automation, and research and development, manufacturers can improve efficiency and deliver high-quality products.
    • Increasing Share in Global Value Chains: To increase India’s share in global manufacturing and value chains, the government is considering providing policy support. This will help reduce dependence on imports and make India more Self-reliant (Atmanirbhar).
    • Attracting Investments: Sophistication in manufacturing can attract significant investments from global companies looking to reduce their dependence on China. According to a Capgemini Research Institute report, 65% of senior executives in the U.S. and Europe plan to increase manufacturing investments significantly in India.
    • Unlocking Opportunities in Specific Sectors: Sophistication in manufacturing can help unlock opportunities in sectors such as food spending, financial services, and consumer markets. By 2031, India’s consumer market is projected to double, presenting a $2.9 trillion opportunity.

    What are the Challenges hindering the growth of the Sophisticated Manufacturing sector?

    • Inadequate infrastructure: Lack of reliable power supply, poor connectivity, and limited access to advanced technologies. Difficulty in obtaining credit, especially for small and medium enterprises (SMEs), to invest in technology upgradation.
    • Skill gaps: Shortage of skilled workers trained in modern manufacturing techniques and technologies
    • Weak Intellectual Property Rights: Insufficient protection of patents, trademarks, and copyrights, discouraging innovation
    • Regulatory hurdles: Complex bureaucratic processes, lack of clarity in policies, and inconsistent implementation

     Government Initiatives and Support

    • Make in India Initiative: Launched in 2014, the program aims to transform India into a global manufacturing hub by facilitating investment, fostering innovation, building best-in-class infrastructure, and making doing business easier. It focuses on 25 sectors, including automobiles, aviation, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals.
    • National Manufacturing Policy: Introduced in 2011, it aims to increase the share of manufacturing in GDP to 25% and create 100 million jobs by 2022. It focuses on enhancing skill development, promoting innovation, and creating a favorable business environment.
    • Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: It provides financial incentives to boost domestic manufacturing and attract investments in key sectors such as electronics, pharmaceuticals, automobiles, and telecom. It has helped reduce import dependence and increase exports in sectors like telecom and mobile manufacturing

    Way Forward:

    • Role of Financial Institutions: By providing access to capital, facilitating technology adoption, and offering financial expertise, they can empower manufacturers to invest in sophistication and drive growth.
    • Enhanced Strategies: Manufacturers need to prioritize investments in technology, automation, research and development, and skill development to enhance sophistication. Collaborating with financial institutions for tailored financial solutions can help accelerate this transformation.
    • Competitive Outlook: As Indian manufacturing embraces sophistication, it is poised to unlock new opportunities, improve competitiveness, and contribute significantly to the country’s economic growth. By aligning with the Finance Minister’s vision, the sector can chart a path towards sustainable success in the global market.

    Conclusion: The Finance Minister’s call for sophistication in Indian manufacturing underscores the need for a strategic shift towards innovation, efficiency, and quality. With concerted efforts from stakeholders, including the government, financial institutions, and manufacturers, India can elevate its manufacturing sector to new heights of success and competitiveness.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Demographic Dividend in India will remain only theoretical unless our manpower becomes more educated, aware, skilled and creative.” What measures have been taken by the government to enhance the capacity of our population to be more productive and employable? (UPSC IAS/2016)

  • 50 year of Pokhran-I: Why India conducted its first Nuclear Tests?

    Why in the News?

    In the year 2024, India’s Pokhran-I have completed 50 years of its tests. The present variation in adopting Nuclear policies (especially Russia and China) around the world, reminds us of the historic Pokhran tests of 1974 by the Indian Government that were held amid secrecy.

    Background:

    • Post-World War II, new global alliances and alignments emerged amidst the Cold War between the US and USSR.
    • The Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) signed in 1968, aimed to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. It defined nuclear-weapon states and non-nuclear states, but India objected to its discriminatory nature towards non-nuclear states.
    • India refused to sign the NPT due to its failure to address India’s concerns about the discriminatory nature of the treaty, particularly regarding non-nuclear states’ obligations.

    Why did India choose to conduct Nuclear Tests? 

    • India viewed the NPT as discriminatory towards non-nuclear states like itself, leading to its decision to conduct nuclear tests independently.
    • Indian scientists, notably Homi J Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai, laid the groundwork for nuclear energy in India. The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was established in 1954.
    • Changes in leadership post-1960s, coupled with conflicts with China and Pakistan, influenced India’s decision to pursue nuclear capabilities. China’s nuclear tests in 1964 also played a role.

    How did Pokhran-I happen?

    • In Secrecy and Uncertainty: India conducted the nuclear test at Pokhran in 1974 without prior announcement, even amidst internal uncertainty among key decision-makers.
      • Operation Smiling Buddha (MEA designation: Pokhran-I) was the code name of India’s first successful nuclear weapon test on 18 May 1974.
      • The test demonstrated India’s nuclear capabilities and its ability to defend itself, though India chose not to weaponize immediately. The choice of Buddha Jayanti for the test date carried symbolic significance.
    • By Autonomous Approval: Despite opposition from some advisers, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi gave the go-ahead for the test, signaling India’s resolve. 

    What was the impact of the Pokhran-I Test?

    • Global Criticism: India faced criticism and sanctions from various countries, including the US, following the tests. The US enacted the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Act in 1978, halting nuclear assistance to India.
      • Despite international criticism, India asserted itself as a nuclear-capable nation, paving the way for future developments like Pokhran-II in 1998.
    • Diplomatic Goals: India sought acceptance as a responsible nuclear power and aimed to join international groups like the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), facing resistance from some countries, notably China.
      • India’s nuclear tests marked a significant milestone in its defense and foreign policy, shaping its stance on nuclear issues and its position in global nuclear politics.

    Way forward for being in the NSG group:

    Engage in Diplomatic Outreach:

    • Strengthen bilateral relations with NSG member countries.
    • Engage in diplomatic dialogue to address concerns and build consensus on India’s membership.

    Demonstrate Commitment to Nonproliferation:

    • Continue adhering to nonproliferation norms and standards.
    • Showcase India’s responsible nuclear behaviour and track record in nuclear security.

    Mains PYQ

    Q With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy. (250 Words, 15 Marks) (UPSC IAS/2018)

  • Was the Stone Age actually the Age of Wood?

    Why in the News?

    New research suggests the Stone Age be termed the “Wood Age” due to advanced wooden tools found in Schoningen, Germany.

    About Schoningen Wooden Artefacts

    • A study of around 300,000-400,000-year-old wooden artefacts excavated from a coal mine in Schoningen, Germany, between 1994 and 2008.
    • It reveals that these were not merely “sharpened sticks” but “technologically advanced tools” requiring skill, precision, and time to build.
    • The tools demonstrated a broad spectrum of wood-working techniques including splitting, scraping or abrasion.

    Back2Basics: Periodising Human Prehistory

    • Prehistory vs. History: Human ‘history’ began with the advent of writing, while everything before that is ‘prehistory,’ studied using archaeological evidence and ethnographic research.
    • 19th Century Periodization: Danish archaeologist Christian Jorgensen Thomsen introduced the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age classification based on technological advancements. This classification has been refined to reflect diverse cultural experiences.

    The Stone Age Timeline

    • Beginning: The Stone Age began when hominids first used stone tools, around 3.4 million years ago in Ethiopia, and lasted until about 6,000-4,000 BP (Before Present).
    • Divisions: The Stone Age is divided into:
    1. Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age): Characterized by rudimentary stone tools and a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, ending around 11,650 BP.
    2. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): A transitional phase.
    3. Neolithic (New Stone Age): Beginning roughly 12,000 BP in West Asia, marked by settled agriculture and domestication of animals.

    Use of Wood: Preservation Bias and Archaeological Evidence

    • Stone Tools: Stone tools provide significant insight into the lives and capabilities of early humans. Charles Darwin noted that even the rudest stone tools required a high degree of mental sophistication and physical dexterity.
    • Other Materials: Evidence shows the use of bones, antlers, clay, and some metalworking alongside stone tools. However, evidence of woodworking is limited due to wood’s perishable nature.
    • Lesser Evidence of Wood: Wood has been recovered from less than 10 of thousands of Lower Palaeolithic sites (up to around 200,000 BP). The earliest wooden dwellings date to only 700,000 BP, much later than the earliest stone tools.

    PYQ:

    [2021] With reference to the period of the Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura and Chaul were well-known as

    (a) ports handling foreign trade

    (b) capitals of powerful kingdoms

    (c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture

    (d) important Buddhist pilgrimage centres

  • RBI flags supervisory concerns over ARCs functioning

    Why in the News?

    • After the allegations of ‘unethical practices’ by ARCs, including aiding defaulting promoters, the RBI intervened, with the Deputy Governor urging integrity and ethical conduct in their operations.

    The new guidelines laid out by the RBI:

    • Enhanced Capital Requirements:
      • Minimum Capital Requirement Increase: ARCs are now mandated to maintain a minimum capital requirement of Rs 300 crore, a significant increase from the previous Rs 100 crore stipulation established on October 11, 2022.
      • Transition Period for Compliance: Existing ARCs are granted a transition period to reach the revised Net Owned Fund (NOF) threshold of Rs 300 crore by March 31, 2026.
      • Interim Requirement: However, by March 31, 2024, ARCs must possess a minimum capital of Rs 200 crore to comply with the new directives.
    • Supervisory Actions for Non-Compliance:
      • ARCs failing to meet the prescribed capital thresholds will face supervisory action, potentially including restrictions on undertaking additional business until compliance is achieved.
    • Expanded Role for Well-Capitalized ARCs:
      • Empowerment of Well-Capitalized ARCs: ARCs with a minimum NOF of Rs 1000 crore are empowered to act as resolution applicants in distressed asset scenarios.
      • Investment Opportunities: These ARCs are permitted to deploy funds in government securities, scheduled commercial bank deposits, and institutions like SIDBI and NABARD, subject to RBI specifications. Additionally, they can invest in short-term instruments such as money market mutual funds, certificates of deposit, and corporate bonds commercial papers.
      • Investment Cap: Investments in short-term instruments are capped at 10% of the NOF to mitigate risk exposure.

    About Asset Reconstruction Company (ARC):

    Description
    About ARC is a special financial institution that acquires debtors from banks at a mutually agreed value and attempts to recover the debts or associated securities.
    Regulation
    • ARCs are registered under the RBI.
    • Regulated under the SARFAESI Act, 2002 (Securitisation and Reconstruction of Financial Assets and Enforcement of Securities Interest Act).

    (Note: For reading more details on SARFAESI Act you can visit on our article named “RBI asks for SARFAESI Act Compliance” of Sept 2023)
    Objective ARCs take over a portion of the bank’s non-performing assets (NPAs) and engage in asset reconstruction or securitization, aiming to recover the debts.
    Functions
    • Asset Reconstruction: Acquisition of bank loans or other credit facilities for realization.
    • Securitization: Acquisition of financial assets by issuing security receipts.
    Foreign Investment 100% FDI allowed in ARCs under the automatic route.
    Limitiations
    • ARCs are prohibited from undertaking lending activities.
    • They can only engage in securitization and reconstruction activities.
    Working
    • Bank with NPA agrees to sell it to ARC at a mutually agreed value.
    • ARC transfers assets to trusts under SARFAESI Act.
    • Upfront payment made to bank, rest through Security Receipts.
    • Recovery proceeds shared between ARC and bank.
    Security Receipts Issued to Qualified Institutional Buyers (QIBs) for raising funds to acquire financial assets.
    Significance
    • Banks can clean up their balance sheets and focus on core banking activities.
    • Provides a mechanism for resolution of NPAs and debt recovery

    PYQ:

    [2018] With reference to the governance of public sector banking in India, consider the following statements:

    1. Capital infusion into public sector banks by the Government of India has steadily increased in the last decade.
    2. To put the public sector banks in order, the merger of associate banks with the parent State Bank of India has been affected.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • New Study Unveils the Origins and Challenges of Baobab Trees

    Why in the News?

    A recent study uncovers the origins and evolution of Baobabs, uniquely shaped trees in Madagascar, with species also native to Africa and Australia.

    Do you know?

    • Mandu, in the Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh, is perhaps the only place in India where baobab trees are found in abundance, with an estimated 1,000 trees in the periphery of the town.
    • Madhya Pradesh state government has plans to apply for a GI (Geographical Indication) tag for the Khorasani Imli or the fruit of the baobab.
    • A Baobab tree near the Golconda Fort in Andhra Pradesh is believed to be more than 400 years old.
    • Aside from Mandu, baobab trees have been recorded in Prayagraj (formerly Allahabad) in Uttar Pradesh, Wai in Maharashtra, and some places in Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh.

    About Baobab Trees

    • Baobabs are deciduous trees (that lose their leaves in autumn) belonging to the genus Adansonia. It comprises 8 distinct species:
      • Adansonia digitata in continental Africa.
      • Adansonia gregorii in Northwestern Australia.
      • 6 other species endemic to Madagascar.
    • Baobabs are known for:
      • Great heights, with some extending up to 50 metres.
      • Exceptionally long lifespans, going up to 2,000 years.
    • They have trunks with large circumferences; thin, spindly branches.
    • Nicknamed “upside down” trees because their tops resemble uprooted plants turned upside down.

    Conservation Status:

    • ‘Threatened’ with extinction according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
    • ‘Least Concern’ category but still faces threats such as residential and commercial development and livestock farming and ranching.

    Importance of Conservation:

    • The study emphasized the conservation of the baobab as a keystone species:
      • Keystone species provide essential resources, such as food or shelter, for a guild of animals.
      • In return, these animals provide essential services, such as pollination or diaspore dispersal.

    Why Baobab tree is called the “Mother of Forests”?

    • They can store large amounts of fresh water in their extraordinary trunks.
    • It also allows the baobab tree to produce nutritious fruits even during the driest years.
    • This makes them true life savers during times when water is scarce.
    • In local cultures, they are revered for multiple uses:
      • Edible fruits and seeds.
      • Seed oil used for cooking.
      • Bark fibre used for clothing.

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] “Leaf litter decomposes faster than in any other biome and as a result the soil surface is often almost bare. Apart from trees, the vegetation is largely composed of plant forms that reach up into the canopy vicariously, by climbing the trees or growing as epiphytes, rooted on the upper branches of trees.” This is the most likely description of​-

    (a) Coniferous forest

    (b) Dry deciduous forest

    (c) Mangrove forest

    (d) Tropical rain forest

  • [17th May 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: Health advice to take with no pinch of Salt

    PYQ Relevance:

    [2022] The increase in life expectancy in the country has led to newer health challenges in the community. What are those challenges and what steps need to be taken to meet them? 

    [2020]  Critically examine the role of WHO in providing global health security during the Covid-19 pandemic.

    Note4Students: 

    Prelims: NA 

    Mains:  Hypertension, WHO’s HEARTS Strategy, India’s Hypertension Control Initiative (IHCI)

    Mentor’s Comment: Hypertension, a major but overlooked risk factor for heart attacks and strokes, causes 10.8 million preventable deaths annually, surpassing risks like tobacco use and high blood sugar. The WHO’s 2023 report reveals that 1.3 billion adults globally have hypertension, with 46% unaware of their condition. In India, 311 million adults suffer from hypertension, triple the number with diabetes.

    Let’s learn___

    Why in the News?

    Over the past three years, the COVID-19 vaccine has attracted significant public attention as a potential risk factor for blood clot formation, leading to sudden cardiac arrest.

    What is Hypertension?

    Hypertension (high blood pressure) is when the pressure in your blood vessels is too high (140/90 mmHg or higher).
    It is common but can be serious if not treated.
    Eating a healthier diet with less salt, exercising regularly and taking medication can help lower blood pressure.

    WHO Report on Hypertension

    • 2023 WHO Report: In 2023, the World Health Organization (WHO) released its first-ever report on hypertension titled “Global Report on Hypertension: The Race against a Silent Killer.”
    • Silent Killer: Hypertension is often called a silent killer because people are usually unaware of their high blood pressure until they develop complications.
    • Leading Cause of Death: High blood pressure causes more deaths than other leading risk factors, such as tobacco use and high blood sugar.
    • Rising Numbers: The number of adults with hypertension nearly doubled since 1990 to reach 1.3 billion.
    • Awareness and Control: Globally, an estimated 46% of adults with hypertension are unaware of their condition, and less than half (42%) are diagnosed and treated. Only one in five adults (21%) with hypertension has it under control.

    Hypertension in India

    • Prevalence in India: The Indian Council of Medical Research-INdia DIABetes (ICMR-INDIAB) study estimates that in India, 311 million people (or one in every three adults) have hypertension.
    • Comparison with Diabetes: In India, adults with hypertension are threefold of the estimated 101 million people living with diabetes.

    Dietary Salt and Hypertension

    • Impact of Excess Salt: Excess dietary salt intake (five grams or more per day) is a key risk factor for hypertension and contributed to two million cardiovascular disease deaths in 2019.
    • Benefits of Reducing Salt Intake: Research shows that reducing salt intake can reduce cardiovascular disease risks by 30% and mortality by 20%.
    • Salt Consumption in India: Indian adults consume on average eight to 11 grams of salt per day, which is approximately twice the WHO-recommended daily intake.
    • Deaths Due to High Salt Intake: High salt intake is responsible for an estimated 175,000 deaths in India.

    Hypertension across Socio-Economic Groups

    • Universal Impact: Hypertension affects all socio-economic groups.
    • Health Camps Findings: A Delhi-based NGO, Foundation for People-centric Health Systems, conducted 50 health camps in five localities of Delhi and Gurugram from October 2023 to March 2024, screening and treating around 12,000 people.
    • Detection in Low-Income Groups: Many were women, migrant workers, and rickshaws and taxi drivers from low-income groups. A large number were found to have diabetes and hypertension, with most cases detected for the first time in these camps, indicating gaps in awareness, detection, and treatment.
    Back2Basics: India’s Hypertension Control Initiative (2021):

    Objective: India aims to put 75 million people with hypertension and/or diabetes on standard care by 2025.

    Initiation and Expansion: The IHCI, a collaborative project of ICMR, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare/Directorate General of Health Services, WHO India, and other partners, was initiated in November 2017 in 25 districts across five states and expanded to 140-plus districts of India in 2023.

    Strategies: IHCI follows five simple and scalable strategies implemented through primary health care:

    -Simplified drug and dose-specific treatment protocols for primary-care settings.
    -Strengthening the drug supply chain by including protocol-based drugs in the State essential drug list, forecasting drugs based on morbidity, and ensuring adequate budget allocation in annual plans.
    -Team-based and decentralized care.
    -Patient-centric measures such as dispensing 30 days of medicine during each patient visit.
    -Use of information systems for program monitoring.

    Programmatic Learnings from IHCI

    • Access and Utilization: Nearly six years of IHCI implementation has resulted in two major learnings:
      • Simple treatment protocols with fewer drugs, reliable drug supply, linking patients to facilities closer to home for follow-up, and engaging teams increase access and utilization of health services from government facilities.
      • Simplified program monitoring makes performance assessment quantifiable and actionable.
    • Recognition: The IHCI won the 2022 UN Interagency Task Force and WHO Special Programme on Primary Health Care Award.

    Future Goals and Prevention

    • Global Goals: Seventy-six million cardiovascular deaths and 450 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) could be avoided if countries achieve 50% population hypertension control by 2050.
    • India’s Targets: An estimated 4.6 million deaths can be prevented in India by 2040 if half the hypertensive population has its blood pressure under control, helping to achieve targets under the National Health Policy and global commitments like universal health coverage.

    Way Forward

    • Raise Awareness: Educate the public about the risks and long-term adverse impacts of untreated hypertension. High blood pressure can affect multiple organs, including the heart, kidneys, brain, and eyes.
    • Scale Up Evidence-Based Interventions: Expand successful programs like IHCI. Use strategies and lessons from such experiences to design interventions for other lifestyle diseases like diabetes and chronic kidney diseases.
    • Focus on Non-Modifiable Risk Factors: Address non-modifiable risk factors such as family history, age over 65 years, and pre-existing comorbidities like diabetes and/or kidney disease. Focus on healthy adults with known non-modifiable risk factors.
    • Reduce Dietary Salt Consumption: Implement strategies like “SHAKE the salt habit” under WHO’s HEARTS strategy:
      • Surveillance to measure and monitor salt use.
      • Harness industry to promote and reformulate foods with less salt.
      • Adopt standard labelling and marketing.
      • Educate and communicate to empower individuals to eat less salt.
      • Support environments that promote healthy eating.

    Conclusion: As hypertension continues to exact a heavy toll on global health, concerted efforts are needed to raise awareness, implement evidence-based interventions, and promote healthier lifestyles. By prioritizing hypertension control initiatives and fostering a culture of preventive healthcare, we can mitigate the devastating impact of this silent killer on communities worldwide.

    With inputs from:

    https://www.thehindu.com/opinion/lead/health-advice-to-take-with-no-pinch-of-salt/article68183434.ece

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