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  • Are India’s small towns being increasingly urbanised?

    Why in the News?

    India still focuses its urban future on megacities, even though only about 500 towns are large cities, while nearly 9,000 are small towns, most with populations below one lakh. Earlier, urbanisation was led mainly by metros, but this pattern is now changing. Small towns are increasingly absorbing surplus labour, migrant workers, and consumption activities as metros face high land prices, stressed infrastructure, and rising living costs. This shift reflects not inclusive growth, but the spread of urban crisis to smaller towns, with serious economic and social consequences.

    How have India’s small towns proliferated since the 1970s?

    1. Metropolitan Concentration: Organised capital accumulation during the 1970s-1990s prioritised large cities as centres of industry, infrastructure, and state investment.
    2. Labour Absorption: Cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, and later Bengaluru and Hyderabad absorbed surplus labour and expanded consumption.
    3. Spatial Fix: Metros functioned as spatial fixes for capitalism by enabling accumulation through land, infrastructure, and labour concentration.

    Why are India’s metros facing a crisis of over-accumulation today?

    1. Land Detachment: Land prices have become disconnected from productive economic use.
    2. Infrastructure Stress: Urban systems are stretched beyond functional limits.
    3. Cost Escalation: Rising housing and living costs have become unaffordable for working groups.
    4. Accumulation Limits: Metros have exhausted their capacity to absorb surplus capital and labour efficiently.

    Why have small towns emerged as new sites of urbanisation?

    1. Capital Redirection: Small towns offer cheaper land and lower entry barriers for capital.
    2. Labour Availability: They absorb migrants displaced from metros and rural youth exiting agrarian livelihoods.
    3. Functional Integration: Towns such as Sattenapalle (Andhra Pradesh), Dhamtari (Chhattisgarh), Barabanki (Uttar Pradesh), Hassan (Karnataka), Bongaigaon (Assam), and Una (Himachal Pradesh) now act as logistics nodes, agro-processing hubs, warehouse towns, service centres, and consumption markets.

    How are small towns embedded within the urban process?

    1. Urban Continuum: Small towns operate fully within urban capitalist systems rather than existing as rural-urban intermediaries.
    2. Regulatory Gaps: Weaker regulation and minimal political scrutiny facilitate capital expansion.
    3. Cost Arbitrage: Lower land prices and pliable labour make small towns attractive for accumulation under stress conditions.

    Are small towns a better alternative to metropolitan urbanisation?

    1. No Emancipatory Promise: The article rejects the notion that small towns ensure inclusive or equitable growth.
    2. Urbanisation of Poverty: What unfolds is the relocation of rural deprivation into urban spaces.
    3. Informal Labour Dominance: Construction workers without contracts, women in home-based work, and youth in platform economies face insecurity and lack of social protection.
    4. Emerging Hierarchies: Towns such as Bhadol (Madhya Pradesh) and Raichur (Karnataka) show consolidation of power among real estate brokers, contractors, micro-financiers, and local intermediaries controlling land and labour.

    What does this reveal about India’s urban policy framework?

    1. Metro-Centric Bias: Flagship urban missions remain focused on large cities.
    2. Policy Failure: Small towns remain under-governed despite being central to contemporary urbanisation.
    3. Political Neglect: Absence of adequate scrutiny deepens informalisation and inequality.

    Conclusion

    India’s small towns are not emerging as alternatives to the metropolitan crisis but as its extension. They represent a new spatial frontier for capitalist accumulation under stress, marked by informal labour, weak regulation, and entrenched local hierarchies. Without policy recalibration, small-town urbanisation risks reproducing the very inequalities it was expected to resolve.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Why do large cities tend to attract more migrants than smaller towns? Discuss in the light of conditions in developing countries.

    Linkage: The question examines structural drivers of rural-urban migration in developing countries. It connects with debates on metro-centric growth, over-accumulation, and the emerging role of small towns as secondary but constrained urban destinations.

  • CEC Recommends Restoring Original ESZ Around Bannerghatta National Park

    Why in the News?

    In January 2026, the Central Empowered Committee (CEC) recommended restoring the original 2016 Ecologically Sensitive Zone (ESZ) around Bannerghatta National Park, reversing the reduced ESZ notified in 2020.

    About Bannerghatta National Park (BNP)

    • A protected wildlife reserve and biodiversity hotspot
    • Acts as the southern green lung of Bengaluru
    • Crucial for conserving forests, elephants, and wildlife corridors
    • Located in the Anekal hill range, Karnataka

    Geological and Physical Features

    • Granite hill ranges: Ancient granite formations of the Anekal Hills
    • Moist deciduous valleys: Support elephants, deer and predators
    • Dry scrub uplands: Important grazing habitats
    • Wildlife corridors: Links BR Hills and Sathyamangalam forests, forming a key elephant corridor
    • Water system: Suvarnamukhi stream flows through the park, sustaining wildlife

    What is the ESZ Issue

    • 2016 draft ESZ: 268.9 sq km
    • 2020 notification: Reduced to 168.64 sq km
    • Reduction excluded:
      • Key elephant corridors
      • Critical forest buffer zones
    • Resulted in increased pressure from:
      • Real estate expansion
      • Quarrying
      • Industrial activities
    • Heightened human animal conflict near rapidly expanding Bengaluru

    Prelims Pointers

    • Bannerghatta National Park lies in Karnataka near Bengaluru
    • Forms a vital elephant corridor in southern India
    • ESZ reduction occurred in 2020
    • CEC functions under the Supreme Court of India
    • ESZs regulate activities like mining, industries and construction near protected areas
    [2014] With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’, which of the following statements is/are correct? 

    1. Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas that are declared under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

    2. The purpose of the declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all kinds of human activities in those zones except agriculture

    Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Greenwald Limit in Fusion Research

    Why in the News?

    China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) fusion reactor has achieved stable plasma densities 30 to 65 percent higher than the Greenwald limit, overcoming a decades old constraint in nuclear fusion research.

    About Greenwald Limit

    • The Greenwald limit is a theoretical upper limit on plasma density in a tokamak fusion reactor.
    • It links the maximum stable plasma density to:
      • Plasma current
      • Size of the tokamak
    • Crossing this limit usually causes plasma instability and sudden collapse.

    Why the Greenwald Limit Matters?

    • Nuclear fusion requires:
      • Very high temperature
      • High plasma density
      • Sufficient confinement time
    • The Greenwald limit restricted how much fuel plasma could be packed into a tokamak.
    • It has been a major bottleneck to achieving self sustaining fusion or ignition.

    Prelims Pointers

    • Greenwald limit applies to tokamak fusion reactors
    • Exceeding it traditionally causes plasma instability
    • EAST achieved stable plasma beyond this limit
    • Breakthrough achieved by plasma wall interaction control
    • Important for progress towards fusion ignition and clean energy
    [2016] India is an important member of the ‘International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor’. If this experiment succeeds, what is the immediate advantage for India? 

    (a) It can use thorium in place of uranium for power generation

    (b) It attains a global role in satellite-navigation

    (c) It can drastically improve the efficiency of its fission reactors in power generation

    (d) It can build fusion reactors for power generation

  • Air Pollution Aerosols Intensify and Prolong Winter Fog Over North India: IIT Madras Study

    Why in the News

    A Indian Institute of Technology Madras led study published in Science Advances shows that air pollution aerosols are making winter fog over north India denser and longer lasting, worsening visibility and health impacts.

    About Aerosols

    • Aerosols are tiny solid or liquid particles suspended in the atmosphere.
    • They strongly influence air quality, weather and climate.
    • Natural sources: desert dust, sea spray, volcanic ash, forest fires
    • Human sources: vehicle emissions, industrial pollution, biomass burning, coal and diesel use
    • Primary aerosols are emitted directly.
    • Secondary aerosols form in the air from gases like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

    Key Features

    • Extremely small size: penetrate deep into lungs and remain airborne easily
    • Persistence: stay suspended for days to weeks, travel long distances
    • Condensation nuclei: provide surfaces for water vapour to condense, aiding fog and cloud formation
    • Radiative effects:
      • Scatter sunlight: reflective aerosols cool the surface
      • Absorb heat: black carbon warms the atmosphere

    How Aerosols Affect Winter Fog

    • Increase number of fog droplets, making fog thicker
    • Reduce sunlight reaching the surface, causing cooling that sustains fog
    • Slow fog dissipation, leading to prolonged low visibility episodes

    Prelims Pointers

    • Aerosols act as condensation nuclei for fog and clouds
    • Black carbon absorbs heat while sulphate aerosols reflect sunlight
    • Human sources significantly amplify winter fog over north India
    • Aerosols influence health, visibility, weather and climate simultaneously
    [2019] In the context of which of the following do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus cloud thinning technique and the injection of sulphate aerosol into stratosphere? 

    (a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions 

    (b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones 

    (c) Reducing the adverse effects of solar wind on the Earth 

    (d) Reducing the global warming

  • PSLV-C62 Mission Failure

    Why in the News

    The Indian Space Research Organisation’s first launch of 2026, the PSLV-C62 mission, failed to place 16 satellites into the intended orbit on 12 January 2026. This marks the second consecutive failure of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), ISRO’s most reliable launch vehicle for over three decades.

    About PSLV-C62 Mission

    • Launch Vehicle: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
    • Payload: 16 satellites
      • Includes 7 foreign satellites
    • Mission outcome: Failed to reach intended orbit
    • Failure stage: Third stage (after successful completion of first two stages)

    Why the Failure Matters

    • PSLV is known as ISRO’s workhorse, with a long record of success since the 1990s.
    • This is the second straight PSLV failure, the first occurring in May 2025.
    • Consecutive failures raise concerns about reliability in the third stage, a critical phase of orbital insertion.

    Possible Cause of Failure

    • Exact cause not yet identified.
    • Based on the May 2025 failure, issues may relate to:
      • Drop in combustion chamber pressure in the third stage motor
      • Reduced thrust leads to insufficient acceleration needed to stabilise orbit
    • The Failure Analysis Committee report of the previous mission has not been made public.

    Why the Third Stage is Critical

    • The third stage provides high acceleration required to:
      • Maintain orbital velocity
      • Prevent premature orbital decay
    • Any pressure or thrust instability at this stage directly impacts mission success.

    PSLV: Four-Stage Configuration (Prelims Focus)

    1. First Stage
      • Solid propellant
      • Provides lift-off and overcomes gravity and atmospheric drag
      • Carries rocket to ~50–60 km altitude
    2. Second Stage
      • Liquid propellant
      • Improves velocity and stabilisation
    3. Third Stage
      • Solid motor
      • Provides rapid acceleration for orbital insertion
      • Most failure-prone stage in recent missions
    4. Fourth Stage
      • Liquid engines
      • Fine-tunes orbit and deploys satellites

    Prelims Pointers

    • PSLV is a four-stage launch vehicle.
    • Recent PSLV failures occurred during the third stage.
    • Combustion chamber pressure is critical for orbital velocity.
    • PSLV has been operational for over 30 years.
    • ISRO has not yet released the Failure Analysis Committee report for the 2025 failure.
    [2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: 

    1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites

    2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth

    3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors, and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. 

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 only

  • DRDO Successfully Flight Tests Man Portable Anti Tank Guided Missile (MPATGM)

    Why in the News?

    The Defence Research and Development Organisation successfully conducted the flight test of the third generation Man Portable Anti Tank Guided Missile (MPATGM) with top attack capability against a moving target on 11 January 2026 at KK Ranges, Ahilya Nagar, Maharashtra.

    About Man Portable Anti Tank Guided Missile (MPATGM)

    • Type: Third generation Fire and Forget Anti Tank Guided Missile
    • Indigenous status: Fully indigenously developed
    • Intended user: Indian Army
    • Launch modes:
      • Tripod based launcher
      • Military Vehicle Mounted launcher

    Key Technological Features

    • Imaging Infrared (IIR) Homing Seeker
      • Enables day and night combat capability
      • Ensures high accuracy after launch without operator guidance
    • Top Attack Capability: Missile strikes the top of enemy tanks, the most vulnerable section
    • Tandem Warhead: Designed to defeat modern Main Battle Tanks (MBTs) with explosive reactive armour
    • All Electric Control Actuation System
    • Advanced Fire Control System
    • High Performance Sighting System
    • Indigenous Propulsion System

    Prelims Pointers

    • MPATGM is a third generation Fire and Forget missile
    • Uses Imaging Infrared (IIR) seeker
    • Has top attack and tandem warhead capability
    • Successfully tested in January 2026
    • Developed by DRDO with BDL and BEL as production partners
    [2024] Consider the following statements: 

    1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight

    2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • [13th January 2026] The Hindu OpED: Early investment in children, the key to India’s future

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] “Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development.” Analyse.

    Linkage: This PYQ links primary health systems to sustainable development through preventive care, nutrition, maternal and child health, and human capital formation.

    Mentor’s Comment

    India aims to become a developed economy by 2047. Most discussions focus on infrastructure, manufacturing, and digital growth. This article shifts attention to early childhood development (ECD), a less visible but critical area. It argues that without strong investment in the first 3,000 days of life, economic goals remain weak. The article reviews existing child-focused policies and calls for a universal, integrated, mission-mode approach.

    Why in the News?

    India lacks a clear national roadmap for early childhood development, even though early years shape health, learning, and future productivity. Despite success in reducing child mortality, fragmented and survival-focused policies fail to ensure full development, making early investment a high-return national priority, not just welfare.

    What is Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD)?

    1. It is not a social sector expenditure but a strategic economic investment. 
    2. Scientific evidence confirms that the period from conception to eight years, especially the first 3,000 days, determines physical health, cognitive ability, emotional regulation, and social skills.

    Why are the first 3,000 days critical for national development?

    1. Brain Architecture: Forms rapidly during early childhood, with 80–85% neural development occurring in the first few years, shaping lifelong learning capacity.
    2. Human Capital Formation: Early capabilities determine educational attainment, workforce participation, and earning potential in adulthood.
    3. Irreversibility: Deprivation, neglect, or poor nutrition during this phase leads to developmental losses that are difficult or impossible to reverse later.

    What progress has India achieved in early childhood outcomes?

    1. Child Survival: Reduced infant and under-five mortality through consolidation under the National Health Mission.
    2. Nutrition and Immunisation: Expanded coverage addressing severe malnutrition and vaccine-preventable diseases.
    3. Institutional Framework: ICDS (1975) and its restructuring under Mission Saksham Anganwadi and POSHAN 2.0 laid foundations for early nutrition and care, particularly among poorer households.

    Where does India’s current ECCD approach fall short?

    1. Fragmentation: Interventions remain siloed across health, nutrition, and education without an integrated developmental framework.
    2. Survival Bias: Policy focus prioritises keeping children alive rather than enabling optimal cognitive, emotional, and social development.
    3. Limited Coverage: ECCD initiatives largely target government safety-net beneficiaries, excluding large sections of middle- and upper-income households facing obesity, screen addiction, delayed skills, and behavioural issues.
    4. Late Intervention: Formal developmental support typically begins at 30-36 months, missing the most critical early window.

    What does scientific evidence reveal about early interventions?

    1. Epigenetics: Early-life nutrition, stress, and environmental exposure influence gene expression and long-term health outcomes.
    2. Health Risks: Parental obesity, substance use, poor maternal nutrition, and chronic stress increase risks of non-communicable diseases and developmental delays.
    3. Time Use Paradox: Children spend most early years at home, yet structured guidance on stimulation, play, and emotional nurturing remains scarce.

    Why must ECCD be universal rather than poverty-targeted?

    1. Developmental Challenges: Obesity, physical inactivity, excessive screen exposure, and emotional difficulties affect children across income groups.
    2. Equity and Inclusion: Universal ECCD prevents exclusion errors and ensures national-level human capital strengthening.
    3. Productivity Link: Broad-based developmental deficits undermine workforce quality and long-term competitiveness.

    What early interventions need to be prioritized?

    1. Preconception Counselling: Focuses on nutrition, mental health, lifestyle, and intergenerational impacts, benefiting two generations simultaneously.
    2. Parental Empowerment: Encourages early stimulation through talking, reading, singing, playing, and emotional engagement from infancy.
    3. Growth Monitoring: Enables early detection of delays through periodic, simple assessments.
    4. Quality Early Learning: Addresses undernutrition, obesity, emotional regulation, and life-long health habits for children aged 2-5 years.
    5. Integrated Service Delivery: Breaks silos between health, nutrition, and education, transforming schools into integrated child development hubs.
    6. Social Outreach: Extends ECCD conversations beyond clinics into homes, workplaces, and communities.

    Why is a national mission-mode approach necessary?

    1. Policy Coordination: Requires functional convergence between Ministries of Health, Education, and Women & Child Development.
    2. Teacher Capacity: Necessitates training educators in child development beyond academic instruction.
    3. Ecosystem Building: Engages parents, non-profits, philanthropic institutions, and CSR initiatives to create a supportive ECCD environment.

    Conclusion

    Early childhood care and development is the most cost-effective and high-impact investment India can make to secure its long-term economic, social, and democratic future. While India has succeeded in improving child survival, the absence of a universal, integrated, and development-focused ECCD framework risks locking future generations into avoidable health, learning, and productivity deficits. Treating the first 3,000 days as a national mission, rather than a welfare add-on, will determine whether India’s demographic potential translates into a resilient, skilled, and globally competitive workforce by 2047.

  • If data is the new oil, what does that make data centres?

    Why in the News?

    India is increasingly seen as a likely destination for global “data dumping” as large data centres expand due to AI growth, government incentives, and geopolitical changes. This is a serious issue because data centres place heavy pressure on electricity, water, land, and environmental regulation, especially in water-stressed cities. Unlike earlier views that treated digital infrastructure as low-impact, data centres are now emerging as resource-intensive industrial units, raising concerns about sustainability, weak regulation, and long-term environmental costs.

    What are Data centers?

    1. Physical Digital Infrastructure: Large facilities that store, process, and manage digital data using servers, storage systems, and networking equipment.
    2. Backbone of the Digital Economy: Support cloud computing, e-governance, AI, fintech, e-commerce, and social media services.

    Why is India vulnerable to becoming a “data dumping” destination?

    1. Geopolitical Stability: Provides predictability compared to other global regions, increasing investor preference.
    2. Fiscal Incentives: Offers subsidised land, power, and expedited clearances for data infrastructure.
    3. Domestic Market Scale: Ensures long-term demand for data storage and processing.
    4. AI-Driven Demand: Accelerates need for hyperscale facilities with high energy density.

    Why are data centres no longer “clean” digital infrastructure?

    1. Electricity Intensity: Requires massive grid capacity, substations, and uninterrupted power supply.
    2. Water Dependence: Uses large volumes for cooling, especially where air cooling is not feasible.
    3. Thermal Pollution: Releases waste heat, intensifying urban heat stress.
    4. Industrial Footprint: Mirrors heavy industry in land use, emissions, and infrastructure strain.

    What environmental risks?

    1. Water Stress: Many Indian cities already face chronic water shortages.
    2. Grid Overload: Clustered data centres require grid upgrades and load balancing.
    3. Externalised Costs: Environmental and infrastructure costs often borne by the public sector.
    4. Weak Enforcement: Post-clearance monitoring and compliance remain inadequate.

    What are the governance and regulatory gaps?

    1. Institutional Lacunae: Noted by the Comptroller and Auditor General, Supreme Court, and National Green Tribunal.
    2. Zoning Weaknesses: Data centres not uniformly classified as heavy infrastructure.
    3. Opacity: Non-disclosure agreements restrict public scrutiny.
    4. Fragmented Oversight: Multiple agencies without integrated regulation.

    What lessons emerge from international and domestic resistance?

    1. United States Experience: Community resistance in Virginia, North Carolina, and Minnesota due to water and energy stress.
    2. Transparency Failures: Projects stalled due to non-disclosure and lack of public consultation.
    3. Course Correction: Developers increasingly engaging communities early to reduce backlash.
    4. Indian Parallel: Similar conditions exist but with weaker civic engagement and regulatory checks.

    Risks of unchecked expansion

    1. Capital Intensity: Limits government bargaining power once investments are sunk.
    2. Subsidy Distortions: Shifts public resources toward private digital infrastructure.
    3. Environmental Injustice: Local communities bear costs without proportional benefits.
    4. Governance Risk: Early-stage policy failures become irreversible later.

    Conclusion

    Data centres must be treated as heavy infrastructure, not neutral digital assets. Without enforceable zoning, water-use ceilings, transparent disclosures, and robust environmental oversight, India risks replicating extractive development models under the guise of digital growth. Sustainable digitalisation requires aligning data infrastructure with ecological limits and democratic accountability.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2015] Discuss the advantages and security implications of cloud hosting of servers vis-a-vis in-house machine-based hosting for government businesses.

    Linkage: This question examines the trade-offs between efficiency-driven digital governance and strategic data control. It also connects with current debates on data centres, cloud infrastructure, and data sovereignty, where reliance on cloud hosting raises concerns of security, resilience, and regulatory oversight for government systems.

  • Bhairav Battalion: India’s New Combat Ready Force for High Speed Operations

    Why in the News?

    The Indian Army has operationalised a new rapid response combat unit called the Bhairav Battalion, reflecting a major shift towards fast, technology driven and multi domain warfare, especially along sensitive border areas.

    What is the Bhairav Battalion

    • A new age infantry formation raised in 2025
    • Designed for high speed, short notice and independent operations
    • Created after studying lessons from modern conflicts such as the Russia Ukraine war and India’s own border challenges
    • Focuses on hybrid warfare combining conventional combat with drones, electronic disruption and rapid manoeuvre
    [2025] With reference to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), consider the following statements: 

    I. All types of UAVs can do vertical landing

    II. All types of UAVs can do automated hovering

    III. All types of UAVs can use battery only as a source of power supply

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three (d) None

  • Crypto Rules Tightened: Live Selfies and Geo Tagging Mandatory for Users

    Why in the News

    India’s Financial Intelligence Unit has rolled out stringent Anti Money Laundering and Know Your Customer norms for cryptocurrency exchanges, making live selfie verification and geographical tracking compulsory during user onboarding under guidelines issued on 8 January 2026.

    Regulatory Framework

    • Crypto exchanges classified as Virtual Digital Asset service providers
    • Covered as Reporting Entities under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act
    • FIU designated as the single point regulator for crypto exchanges in India

    New Mandatory KYC Requirements

    Live Selfie Verification

    • Capture of live photograph
    • Liveliness detection using eye blinking or head movement
    • Prevents use of static images and deepfakes
    • Confirms physical presence of the user

    Geo Tagging and Technical Data

    • Mandatory capture of
      • Latitude and longitude
      • Date and timestamp
      • IP address of onboarding location

    Penny Drop Verification

    • Re 1 bank transaction
    • Confirms bank account ownership and activity

    Identity and Authentication

    • Permanent Account Number compulsory
    • One additional identity document
      • Aadhaar
      • Passport
      • Voter ID
    • OTP verification of mobile number and email ID
    [2020] With reference to “Blockchain Technology” consider the following statements: 

    1. It is a public ledger that everyone can inspect, but which no single user controls

    2. The structure and design of blockchain is such that all the data in it are about cryptocurrency only

    3. Applications that depend on basic features of blockchain can be developed without anybody’s permission. 

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

    (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3 only

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