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Subject: Art and Culture

  • How Sir Syed reconciled Faith with Reason?

    Why in the News?

    March 27 is the death anniversary of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, a prominent 19th-century reformer and educationist who significantly advanced the social and educational development of Muslims.

    How Sir Syed reconciled Faith with Reason?

    About Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-1898)

    • Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was born in 1817 in Delhi, into a renowned Muslim family.
    • He received education in Persian and Arabic and was well-versed in Islamic studies from an early age.
    • Public Service and Recognition:
      • He joined the British government’s judicial service in 1876 and was exposed to Western education and ideas, significantly influencing his later reforms.
      • He served as a member of the Viceregal Council (1878-1883), the Lieutenant Governor’s Council of the North-Western Province (1887), and was involved in educational reforms as part of the Imperial Education Commission (1888) and the Royal Public Service Commission (1886).
      • He was knighted by the British in 1888 for his contributions to social and educational reforms.
    • Role During British Rule:
      • After the 1857 revolt, Sir Syed helped change the British perception of Muslims, utilizing British support to improve Muslim progress.
      • He focused on education and cultural reform within the British framework to improve Muslim society.

    Key Contributions:

    • Educational Reforms:
      • Sir Syed founded Madrasatul Uloom in 1875, which later became Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental (MAO) College in 1877, laying the foundation for Aligarh Muslim University (AMU).
      • He encouraged English education, believing it was essential for India’s progress. His visit to England in 1869-1870 further convinced him of its importance.
    • Promotion of Critical Thinking and Modernity:
      • Sir Syed advocated for the reconciliation of Islamic faith with modern scientific thought and believed Islamic principles could coexist with modernity and science.
      • He emphasized reason and critical thinking, opposing blind tradition.
    • Social and Religious Reforms:
      • He supported women’s education, opposed purdah and polygamy, and advocated for easier divorce laws.
      • He criticized the Piri and Muridi System and promoted self-discipline and independent thought.
    • Political Views:
      • While involved in governance, Sir Syed was cautious about direct political engagement to avoid hostility from the British.
    • Literary Contributions:
      • Sir Syed launched 3 bilingual periodicals — The Loyal Mohammedans of India (1860), The Aligarh Institute Gazette (1866), and Tehzibul Akhlakh (1870) — to promote modernity, rational thought, and cultural pluralism, combating sectarianism and bigotry.
    • Hindu-Muslim Unity:
      • He once famously described Hindus and Muslims as “two eyes of the beautiful bride, that if any of the eyes hurt, made the bride ugly.” He had declared in 1884 at Gurdaspur that the Hindus and Muslims should try to become one heart and soul and act in unison.
    • The Aligarh Movement:
      • It aimed to modernize the Muslim community by promoting modern education while preserving Islamic values.
      • It led to social reforms such as the abolition of purdah and polygamy, and the promotion of widow remarriage and women’s education.
    [UPSC 2000] Consider the following pairs:

    Institution – Founder

    1. Sanskrit College at Benaras – William Jones

    2. Calcutta Madarsa – Warren Hastings

    3. Fort William College – Arthur Wellesley

    4. Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College at Aligarh – Syed Ahmad Khan

    How many of the above are correctly matched?

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

     

  • Revival of Vikramshila University

    Why in the News?

    A decade after the resurgence of Nalanda University, the Government of Bihar is now focusing on the revival of Vikramshila University.

    About Vikramshila University

    • Vikramshila University was founded by King Dharmapala of the Pala Dynasty in the 8th-9th century AD in Bhagalpur district, Bihar, near the Ganges River.
    • It was established to address the decline in academic standards at Nalanda University.
    • The university specialized in Tantric Buddhism and Vajrayana Buddhism. Subjects taught included philosophy, grammar, metaphysics, logic, and tantras.
    • Notable scholars like Atisa Dipankara and Naropa were associated with Vikramshila.
    • It housed over 1,000 students and employed more than 100 teachers.
      • The university had 208 monastic cells, where monks studied and meditated.
    • Administration was managed by a Kulpati, or Mahasthavir, overseeing both academics and operations.
    • Key Features:
      • The university’s iconic cruciform brick stupa stood at 15 meters.
      • It also had a library with a unique cooling system to preserve manuscripts.
      • The architecture included a square layout with gates at four cardinal directions and surrounding votive stupas.
    • Decline and Destruction:
      • It thrived for about 400 years before being destroyed by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1193 AD.
      • The decline was due to the rise of Hinduism, the fall of Buddhism, and foreign invasions.

    Cultural Significance of Vikramshila University

    • Vikramshila was a major centre for Tantric and Vajrayana Buddhism, focusing on esoteric practices and rituals.
    • The Cakrasamvara Tantra was developed here, with scholars like Buddhajnanapada contributing to its spread.
    • The teachings from Vikramshila spread Buddhism across the Himalayas, Central Asia, and the Far East.
    • Vikramshila represented the zenith of Buddhist scholarship in India and contributed significantly to Buddhist texts, some of which survived through Tibetan manuscripts.
    [UPSC 1998] Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?

    I. Lothal: Ancient dockyard

    II. Sarnath: First Sermon of Buddha

    III. Rajgir: Lion capital of Asoka

    IV. Nalanda: Great seat of Buddhist learning

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) I, II, III and IV (b) III and IV (c) I, II and IV (d) I and II

     

  • Lapis Lazuli and its Ancient Significance

    Why in the News?

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in ‘The Hindu’.

    Lapis Lazuli and its Ancient Significance

    About Lapis Lazuli

    • Lapis lazuli is a deep-blue metamorphic rock prized for its vibrant colour, often used in jewellery and decorative items.
    • It is composed mainly of lazurite, with other minerals like calcite and pyrite, which give it its characteristic golden specks.
    • It is mainly found in Afghanistan’s Badakhshan province, though it is also present in Chile, Russia, and the US.
    • It has been valued since ancient times, particularly in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, and is known for its use in making pigments, especially ultramarine.

    Lapis Lazuli and its Ancient Significance

    Lapis Lazuli in Indus Valley Civilization (IVC):

    • The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) (3300-1900 BC) had extensive trade with Mesopotamia and Afghanistan, where lapis lazuli was imported.
    • It was used for beads and ornaments found at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, underscoring its value in Indus jewellery.
    • It was a sacred stone, often used in beads, pendants, and amulets, symbolizing spirituality and high social status.
    • It was likely associated with religious ceremonies and used to represent the gods.
    • The Indus people were skilled at bead-making, often combining lapis lazuli with other stones, such as gold.
    • The intricate designs, including incised or painted beads, reflect their technical expertise.

    Other Semi-Precious Stones Found in IVC:

    Several semi-precious stones were used by the IVC to create jewellery and ornaments:

    • Carnelian beads were made into pendants and rings, valued for their reddish-orange hue and durability.
    • Amethyst beads, a purple quartz variety, were also used, likely imported from other regions.
    • Jasper, a chalcedony variety, was used for beads and pendants, valued for its earthy tones.
    • Turquoise was used in beads, often combined with lapis lazuli and carnelian.
    • Steatite (Soapstone) was used for seals and beads, often engraved with animal motifs or symbols.
    • Crystal and quartz were used for translucent beads, adding a mystical quality to jewelry.
    • Gold, combined with semi-precious stones like lapis lazuli, carnelian, and turquoise, was extensively used in necklaces, bracelets, and earrings.

     

    [UPSC 2023] Lothal, a significant site of the Indus Valley Civilization, was particularly well-known as a:

    (a) major agricultural centre

    (b) centre for textile production

    (c) major trade hub for beads, gems, and ornaments

    (d) site with extensive fire altars

     

  • Why Pots are integral to understanding Culture?

    Why in the News?

    This newscard is an excerpt and extension of the original article published in the Indian Express.

    Why Pots are integral to understanding Culture?

    Types of Potteries in Ancient India:

    1. Neolithic Age (10000 BCE): Pottery in this period was handmade, with rough, unglazed surfaces. Later, the footwheel was introduced, making pottery shaping more refined. Materials like clay, mica, and sand were used.
    2. Chalcolithic Age (4500-2000 BCE): The main pottery types during this era were Black-and-Red Ware, Black-on-Red Ware, and Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP). These were seen in cultures like Ahar-Banas and Jorwe, often featuring geometric designs.
    3. Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1500 BCE): Pottery was wheel-thrown, with both polished and unpolished varieties. Common pottery types included Black-and-Red Ware and Painted Grey Ware, adorned with geometric patterns and depictions of animals and plants.
    4. Vedic Era (1500-500 BCE): During this period, Painted Grey Ware (PGW) became prominent, characterized by fine grey pottery with black geometric patterns. Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) emerged, glossy and associated with the elite for its fine finish.
    5. Mauryan and Gupta Periods: The Mauryan period continued the use of NBPW, while the Gupta period introduced redware pottery. The Kushana period added red polished ware with stamped designs.

    Rise in Mercantile Activities and Evolution of Pottery Styles:

    • The Vedic period saw the emergence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW), often linked with the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
    • With the rise of Buddhism, Jainism, and urbanization, NBPW emerged during the Mahajanapada period.
    • Glazed porcelain was introduced around 1000 AD through trade with China and Muslim traders, significantly influencing India’s pottery tradition.

    How Pots are integral to understanding Culture?

    • Material Culture: Pottery is a direct reflection of daily life and technological expertise. It reveals how ancient societies lived, worked, and expressed their culture through artistic and functional objects.
    • Socio-Economic Indicators: The types of pottery indicate economic status. Luxury pottery like NBPW was reserved for the elite, while more common pottery suggests the everyday life of the broader society.
    • Cultural and Religious Practices: Pottery had significant ritualistic and symbolic importance, used in religious ceremonies and burial rituals. Specific pots represented deities or were filled with sacred items like coconuts, bananas, and flowers.
    • Technological and Artistic Development: The evolution of pottery-making, from handmade to wheel-thrown pottery, marks the increasing technological and artistic sophistication of ancient civilizations, highlighting advancements in both craftsmanship and creativity.
    • Chronological Understanding: Pottery helps date ancient sites, providing key insights into the timeline of cultural and technological progress. It allows historians to map out the development of civilizations and better understand their historical context.

  • Anniversary of the Muzhara Movement

    Why in the News?

    On March 19, the anniversary of the Muzhara movement is observed, marking a significant chapter in Punjab’s agrarian struggles.

    About Muzhara Movement

    • Muzharas were farmers who worked the land but had no ownership rights.
      • They were part of a larger class of landless peasants in Punjab, facing oppressive feudal systems.
    • The biswedars (landlords), who took one-third of the produce, controlled the land.
      • This system led to economic exploitation, with a significant portion of the produce and profits going to the feudal landlords and, ultimately, the British colonial rulers.
    • The muzharas were seeking ownership of the land they had tilled for generations, asserting their right to the land in opposition to both the feudal and colonial systems.
    • In March 1949, when the biswedars tried to reclaim land from the muzharas, Kishangarh village became the epicentre of the struggle.
    • A violent standoff between the muzharas and the Patiala police ensued, which resulted in the death of a police officer on March 17.
    • The army intervened on March 19, leading to four muzharas being killed in the ensuing confrontation.

    Other Contemporary Peasant’s Movements

    Details
    Champaran Satyagraha (1917)
    • Led by Mahatma Gandhi in Bihar against the tinkathia system, where peasants were forced to grow indigo on part of their land.
    • Resulted in the Champaran Agrarian Act (1918), which abolished oppressive practices.
    Kheda Satyagraha (1918)
    • Organized in Gujarat after crop failures when the government refused to remit land revenue.
    • Gandhi and Sardar Patel supported peasants in withholding revenue payments until demands were met.
    Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)
    • Led by Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat against a 30% hike in land revenue.
    • The movement succeeded, and Patel earned the title “Sardar” for his leadership.
    Tebhaga Movement (1946-47)
    • Initiated by the Kisan Sabha in Bengal, demanding a two-thirds share of produce for tenants instead of the customary half.
    • Despite being suppressed violently, it highlighted peasant rights.
    Telangana Movement (1946-51)
    • A communist-led peasant guerrilla struggle in Andhra Pradesh against feudal landlords and the Nizam’s oppressive regime.
    • Achieved redistribution of land and improved

     

    PYQ:

    [UPSC 2013] The demand for the Tebhaga Peasant Movement in Bengal was for:

    (a) the reduction of the share of the landlords from one-half of the crop to one-third,

    (b) the grant of ownership of land to peasants as they were the actual cultivators of the land,

    (c) the uprooting of Zamindari system and the end of serfdom,

    (d) writing off all peasant debts

     

  • Six sites added to India’s tentative list by UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre

    Why in the News?

    The Union Minister of Culture and Tourism has announced the addition of six sites to India’s tentative UNESCO World Heritage List.

    About the Sites

    Details
    Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs (Telangana)
    • Located in Mudumal region, Nalgonda district, Telangana.
    • Dates back to 1000 BCE to 500 BCE, associated with Iron Age.
    • Famous for menhirs, large upright stones used for burial or ceremonial purposes.
    • Provides insight into ancient South Indian megalithic cultures.
    Palace-Fortresses of the Bundelas (Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh)
    • Located in Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
    • Built by Bundela Rajputs from 16th to 18th centuries.
    • Known for a mix of Rajput, Mughal, and Hindu architectural styles.
    • Key sites include Orchha Fort, Datia Palace, and Chanderi Fort.
    Kanger Valley National Park (Chhattisgarh)
    • Located in Bastar district, Chhattisgarh.
    • Covers 200 km², known for dense forests, caves, and waterfalls.
    • Home to species like tigers, leopards, sloth bears, and bison.
    • Famous for Kanger Dhara waterfall and Bailadila Range of hills.
    Ashokan Edict Sites (Multiple States)
    • Spread across India: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, and Karnataka.
    • Created by Emperor Ashoka during 3rd century BCE.
    • Focuses on moral conduct, non-violence, and promoting Buddhism.
    • Key sites include Sanchi, Lumbini, Kalinga, and Kandahar.
    Chausath Yogini Temples (Multiple States)
    • Found in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Orissa.
    • Built during the 8th to 12th centuries CE, associated with Tantric Hinduism.
    • Temples dedicated to 64 Yoginis, with notable sites in Khajuraho and Bhilsa.
    Gupta Temples in North India (Multiple States)
    • Located in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Haryana.
    • Built during 4th to 6th centuries CE during the Gupta Empire.
    • Characterized by Nagara-style architecture.
    • Notable examples: Deogarh Temple, Dasavatara Temple, etc.

     

    PYQ:

    [2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:

    1. Shantiniketan

    2. Rani-ki-Vav

    3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas

    4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya

    How many of the above properties were included in 2023?

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

     

  • Who was Amir Khusrau?

    Why in the News?

    Recently, PM Modi inaugurated the 25th edition of Jahaan-e-Khusrau, a Sufi music festival held at Sunder Nursery, New Delhi, in Khusrau’s honor.

    Who was Amir Khusrau?

    Who was Amir Khusrau?

    • Amir Khusrau was born in Patiyali, Uttar Pradesh, to a Turkish father and an Indian mother.
    • He served as a court poet to five Delhi Sultans:
      • Muiz ud din Qaiqabad of Mamluk Dynasty (1287–1290)
      • Jalaluddin Khalji (1290–1296)
      • Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316)
      • Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (1316–1320)
      • Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325)
    • He was deeply influenced by Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya, whose teachings shaped his spiritual and poetic journey.
    • He is fondly remembered as “The Parrot of India” (Tuti-e-Hind) for his eloquence.

    Literary Contributions:

    • Wrote in Persian and Hindavi, pioneering Khari Boli, the precursor to Hindi and Urdu.
    • Created the first Hindi lexicon (Khalikbari), blending Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic words.
    • Notable works:
      • Tughlaq Nama (historical epic)
      • Nuh Sipihr (Nine Skies)
      • In the Bazaar of Love (ghazals and poetry)
    • Invented the qawwali tradition, merging Indian and Persian musical elements.
    • Composed Chhap Tilak Sab Chheeni Re, Zehal-e-Miskeen, and Sakal Ban Phool Rahi Sarson.
    • Credited with developing the sitar and tabla, though debated by historians.
    • Most devoted disciple of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya.
    • Upon his master’s death in 1325, Khusrau followed within 6 months.
    • His tomb lies beside Nizamuddin’s dargah in Delhi, symbolizing their eternal bond.
    • Pioneered Hindavi poetry and laid the foundation for Hindi and Urdu literature.
    • Inspired generations of ghazal and qawwali singers, including Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and Abida Parveen.
    • Festivals like Jahaan-e-Khusrau continue to honor his enduring cultural legacy.

    PYQ:

    [2012] With reference to the religious history of medieval India, the Sufi mystics were known to pursue which of the following practices?

    1. Meditation and control of breath

    2. Severe ascetic exercises in a lonely place

    3. Recitation of holy songs to arouse a state of ecstasy in their audience

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Dramatic Performances Act, 1876

    Why in the News?

    PM Modi recently questioned why the colonial-era Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, which allowed authorities to ban plays deemed seditious, defamatory, or obscene, remained in force 75 years after independence.

    What is the Dramatic Performances Act, 1876?

    • The Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, was a colonial-era law enacted by the British to suppress nationalist and anti-government sentiments in public performances.
    • The Act empowered the government to ban, regulate, or censor public plays, pantomimes, and dramas that were deemed:
      • Scandalous or defamatory
      • Seditious or inciting disaffection against the government
      • Obscene or corrupting to public morality
    • It also allowed magistrates to search, seize, and arrest performers and organizers without a warrant.
    • The law prescribed up to three months of imprisonment and/or a fine for violations.

    References to Article 19 and Article 372

    • Conflict with Article 19(1)(a) – Right to Free Speech:
      • After independence, freedom of speech and expression was guaranteed under Article 19(1)(a).
      • The Allahabad High Court (1956) ruled the Act unconstitutional, stating it restricted free speech beyond reasonable limits.
    • Exceptions Under Article 19(2):
      • Article 19(2) allows reasonable restrictions on free speech for: Security of the state, public order, morality, and defamation.
      • The court ruled that the Dramatic Performances Act exceeded these limits.
    • Article 372 and Colonial Laws:
      • Article 372(1) of the Constitution states that laws in force before independence shall continue to be in effect unless repealed or modified by the Parliament.
      • Though invalidated in 1956, the law was formally repealed in 2018 under the Repealing and Amending (Second) Act, 2017.

    PYQ:

    [2014] What do you understand by the concept of “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.

    [2021] A legislation which confers on the executive or administrative authority an unguided and uncontrolled discretionary power in the matter of application of law violates which one of the following Articles of the Constitution of India?​

    (a) Article 14 ​

    (b) Article 28​

    (c) Article 32 ​

    (d) Article 44​

     

  • Chandra Shekhar Azad and his Contributions

    Why in the News?

    Leaders from across the political spectrum paid tributes to the freedom fighter Chandra Shekhar Azad on his martyrdom day (27th February 1931).

    Who was Chandra Shekhar Azad?

    • Chandra Shekhar Azad (1906–1931) was a revolutionary who played a key role in India’s independence struggle.
    • Born in Bhabhra, Madhya Pradesh, he joined Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement at 15 but turned to armed revolution after its suspension.
    • He reorganized the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) alongside Bhagat Singh.
    • Azad vowed never to be captured alive and sacrificed himself in a shootout at Alfred Park, Allahabad, on February 27, 1931.

    His Contributions to the Freedom Struggle

    • Non-Cooperation Movement (1921): Arrested at 15, he declared his name as “Azad” (Free) in court and was punished with 15 lashes.
    • Joining HRA (1924): Became a member of Ram Prasad Bismil’s HRA and raised funds through political dacoities.
    • Kakori Train Robbery (1925): Helped loot a British train carrying treasury money; escaped capture while others were sentenced.
    • Reorganizing HSRA (1928): Transformed HRA into HSRA with Bhagat Singh, introducing socialist ideology.
    • Assassination of John Saunders (1928): Avenged Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, personally eliminating a police officer in the escape.
    • Attempt to Blow Up Lord Irwin’s Train (1929): Planned to assassinate Viceroy Lord Irwin, but the plan failed.
    • Final Stand (1931): Surrounded by British police, killed three officers, ensured his comrade’s escape, and shot himself with his last bullet.

    PYQ:

    [2020] Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss.

     

  • What is the Tea Horse Road?

    Why in the News?

    Recently, China’s Ambassador to India highlighted the historical significance of ‘Tea Horse Road’ in fostering Sino-Indian ties.

    About the Tea Horse Road

    • The Tea Horse Road originated during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE).
    • Buddhist monk Yijing (635-713 CE) recorded early trade between China, Tibet, and India, mentioning exchanges of sugar, textiles, and herbs.
    • By the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), the trade focused on tea exports to Tibet and importing horses for China’s military.
    • The network spanned over 2,000 km, crossing treacherous mountain passes at altitudes above 10,000 feet.
    • The Tea Horse Road was not a single road but a network of multiple routes. Two primary routes were:
    1. Yunnan Route:  Starting from Pu’er and Dali, passing through Lijiang, reaching Lhasa (Tibet), and extending into India (via Sikkim, Nepal, and Bhutan).
    2. Sichuan Route: Connecting Chengdu (Sichuan) to Tibet and North India.
    • Tea from southwestern China was transported to Tibet, then moved through the Himalayan passes to Kolkata and beyond, reaching Europe and Asia.
    • The rise of modern roads and railways in the mid-20th century led to its gradual decline.

    Historical Significance:

    • Trade & Economy: Connected Tibet and China to India’s markets, facilitating the export of Chinese tea and Tibetan wool to Kolkata while Indian textiles and spices moved northward.
    • Horses for Indian Cavalry: Tibetan horses, transported through the route, were crucial for Indian military campaigns, especially in the Mughal and British periods.
    • Spread of Buddhism: The route enabled Buddhist scholars and monks to travel between Nalanda, Tibet, and China, promoting cultural and religious exchanges.
    • Political & Diplomatic Relations: British India sought control over Sikkim and Tibet’s trade routes, leading to diplomatic interventions like the 1904 British expedition to Tibet.
    • Impact on Himalayan Regions: Strengthened trade and cultural ties between Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tibet, influencing their shared heritage and economy.

    PYQ:

    [2018] The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same. 

    [2016] ‘Belt and Road Initiative’ is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of

    (a) African Union

    (b) Brazil

    (c) European Union

    (d) China