Subject: Basic Sciences

Why in the News?

In December 2024, Microsoft introduced its quantum computing chip, Majorana 1, designed to solve industrial-scale problems by utilizing the properties of Majorana particles for practical quantum computing.

About Majorana 1 Chip and the Science Behind

• Microsoft introduced its Majorana 1 quantum computing chip, designed to solve large-scale problems using quantum computing.
• This chip is named after Majorana particles, which have unique properties in particle physics.
• Majorana particles are special because they are their own anti-particles.
• This means that when two Majorana particles meet, they destroy each other and release energy.
• This property is different from most particles, like electrons, which have separate anti-particles (for example, the electron’s anti-particle is the positron).
• Why Majorana Particles Matter for Quantum Computing?
  • This unique property could make Majorana particles useful in quantum computing.
  • They could help make quantum bits (qubits) more stable, which is important for improving quantum computers.
  • Using Majorana particles may also help in topological quantum computing, which makes qubits less affected by external disturbances, making them more reliable.

Beta Decay and Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß):

• Beta decay happens when an unstable atomic nucleus releases energy. In this process, a neutron in the nucleus turns into a proton, and an electron and anti-neutrino are emitted. There are two types of beta decay:

1. Beta-minus decay: A neutron becomes a proton, releasing an electron and an anti-neutrino.
2. Beta-plus decay: A proton turns into a neutron, releasing a positron and a neutrino.

• What is Neutrinoless Double Beta Decay (0vßß)? Neutrinoless double beta decay is a rare event where two electrons are emitted instead of the usual electron and anti-neutrino. This suggests that neutrinos and anti-neutrinos might be the same particle, known as Majorana particles.
  • If scientists observe this type of decay, it will prove that neutrinos are Majorana particles and help measure their mass.
  • This discovery would improve our understanding of particle physics.

Scientific Significance:

• The search for 0vßß and studying Majorana particles could help answer important questions about the mass of neutrinos and improve our understanding of particle physics.
• Learning more about neutrinos is key to both advancing quantum computing and understanding particle physics.

Why in the News?

A recent study led by Stanford University chemist Richard Zare has introduced a novel perspective on the origins of life on Earth, providing an alternative to the well-known Miller-Urey hypothesis.

About the Miller-Urey Hypothesis

• The Miller-Urey hypothesis emerged from an experiment conducted in 1952 by chemists Stanley Miller and Harold Urey.
  • It sought to simulate the conditions of early Earth to understand how life could have originated.
• They used a mixture of water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen, gases believed to be present in the early Earth’s atmosphere.
• The setup also included an electric spark to simulate lightning, which they hypothesized could have played a role in the formation of organic compounds.
• Results: The experiment successfully demonstrated that organic molecules, like amino acids, essential for life, could form when an electrical spark (simulating lightning) was applied to the gas mixture.
• Impact and Debate:
  • The experiment was a landmark in understanding life’s chemical origins.
  • However, over time, critics argued that real lightning would have been rare and mostly occurred over open ocean, where organic compounds would have been quickly dispersed.
  • This led to the questioning of lightning as the primary trigger for life’s origins.

Life on Earth and the Role of ‘Microlightning’ in Water Droplets

• The Stanford study shows that when water droplets divide, they develop opposing electrical charges—larger droplets become positively charged, and smaller droplets become negatively charged.
• When these oppositely charged droplets come close together, tiny sparks (termed micro-lightning) can leap between them, mimicking the electrical phenomena that occur in thunderstorms.
• Experimental Evidence:
  • In the experiment, when water sprays were mixed with nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide, and ammonia, they produced organic compounds like glycine and uracil, similar to those in the Miller-Urey experiment.
  • Microlightning from water sprays can therefore generate organic compounds, providing a plausible and common natural process for the origin of life.
• These microlightning events could have been far more common and accessible than lightning strikes, offering an alternative mechanism for the generation of life-building organic molecules.

Why in the News?

In a groundbreaking achievement, Italian researchers have successfully transformed light into a supersolid for the first time in history.

About Supersolid

• A supersolid is a rare state of matter that behaves like both a solid and a liquid at the same time.
• While it maintains a rigid structure, similar to a solid, it can also flow like a liquid without any internal friction.
• How was a supersolid created?
  • Researchers made a supersolid by combining light and matter.
  • They used polaritons (a mix of light and particle pairs called excitons) to create this new state of matter.
  • When these polaritons reach their lowest energy, they form the supersolid that behaves like both a solid and a liquid.
• Features of a Supersolid:
  • Dual Nature: A supersolid is solid in structure but can also flow like a liquid.
  • Quantum Coherence: The particles inside a supersolid work together in a special way because of quantum mechanics, creating unique behaviors.
  • Zero Viscosity: It moves without any resistance, just like a superfluid, meaning it can flow freely even though it’s solid.
  • Temperature Dependency: Supersolids only form at extremely low temperatures (close to absolute zero, or -273.15°C).

Applications of Supersolids

• Quantum Computing: Supersolids could help improve the performance of quantum computers, making them more stable.
• Superconductors: They might be used to create materials that allow zero-resistance electricity, improving energy transmission.
• Frictionless Lubricants: Supersolids could lead to frictionless lubricants, making machinery work more efficiently and last longer.
• Fundamental Physics: Studying supersolids helps us understand quantum physics and how particles behave under extreme conditions.
• Material Science: Supersolids could help create new materials for advanced technology, including computers, sensors, and energy storage.

Why in the News?

Scientists at Tropic, a UK-based biotech company, disabled the PPO gene in bananas slowing down the browning process while allowing normal ripening.

About the Genetically Engineered Bananas

• Genetically engineered bananas are modified using biotechnology to extend shelf life, resist browning, and enhance durability.
• These bananas stay yellow for 12 hours after peeling and are less prone to bruising.
• The modification prevents enzymatic browning, making bananas look fresh for longer without altering their ripening process.
• The modification targets polyphenol oxidase (PPO), the enzyme responsible for browning.
• By disabling PPO activity, oxidation of pigments is slowed, delaying the formation of brown spots.

Gene-Silencing Method Used:

• RNA interference (RNAi) is used to silence the PPO gene, reducing its activity without affecting overall banana development.
• RNAi introduces small RNA molecules that block PPO gene expression, preventing the synthesis of the browning enzyme.
• This method is precise and does not introduce foreign DNA, making it different from traditional genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
• Gene-editing techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are also being explored for future crop modifications.

Why in the News?

Recently, Colossal Biosciences has created a “Woolly Mouse” by editing seven genes in mice embryos to mimic the cold-adaptive traits of woolly mammoths.

About Woolly Mice

• The Woolly Mouse is a genetically modified laboratory mouse developed by Colossal Biosciences to test their de-extinction research.
• Scientists successfully edited seven genes, resulting in mice with thick, woolly fur, mimicking the coat of a woolly mammoth.

• Key Features of Woolly Mice:

• • Genetically engineered for cold-resistant traits using DNA modifications.
  • Long, thick, wavy fur and curled whiskers, resembling mammoth adaptations.
  • Created by combining multiple genetic variants into a single organism.
  • Serves as a model organism to test gene-editing techniques before applying them to Asian elephants, the closest living relatives of woolly mammoths.

Technology Used in Woolly Mouse Development:

• The CRISPR-Cas9 system was used to precisely modify DNA.
• Scientists identified genes responsible for fur texture, length, and body fat metabolism, allowing them to engineer cold-resistant traits.
• Scientists edited seven genes simultaneously, an unprecedented feat in genetic engineering.
• Key genes modified included:
  • FGF5:  regulates hair growth, making it longer and thicker.
  • MC1R: controls hair color, giving the mice a golden hue similar to mammoth fur.
  • Hair follicle structure genes: induced woolly hair texture, wavy coats, and curled whiskers.

Why in the News?

Researchers have recently discovered a potential new state of matter, the Bose metal, found between a regular metal and a superconductor, with evidence of this phase in Niobium Diselenide (NbSe₂) by a team of Chinese and Japanese scientists.

What is a Bose Metal?

• A Bose metal is a hypothetical anomalous metallic state where Cooper pairs (electron pairs) form but do not transition into a superconducting state.
• This state exists between a normal metal and a superconductor, challenging traditional theories of condensed matter physics.
• In simple terms, a Bose metal is a material where:
  • Electrons pair up into Cooper pairs (like in superconductors).
  • However, these Cooper pairs fail to achieve long-range coherence, meaning the material remains metallic instead of becoming superconducting.
  • This results in partial electrical resistance, unlike superconductors that have zero resistance.
• Recent experimental studies suggest their existence in materials like Niobium Diselenide (NbSe₂) when subjected to specific conditions, such as thin layers and applied magnetic fields.

Key Features:

• Intermediate State: Exists between a metal and a superconductor.
• Cooper Pair Formation: Electrons form pairs, but they don’t condense into superconductivity.
• Anomalous Conductivity: Higher than normal metals but not infinite like superconductors.
• Quantum Fluctuations: Strong phase fluctuations disrupt Cooper pair coherence.
• Hall Resistance Vanishing: Indicates charge transport by Cooper pairs rather than individual electrons.
• Observed in Thin 2D Materials: Seen in ultra-thin films of superconductors under specific conditions.