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Subject: Basic Sciences

  • BBX32 Protein in Plants

    Why in the News?

    A new study from researchers at IISER Bhopal has revealed how a single protein called BBX32 helps plants time the critical moment they emerge from darkness into light.

    What is BBX32? 

    • Function: BBX32 is a plant protein that helps a seedling keep its protective hook closed as it pushes through the soil.
    • Protection Mechanism: The hook shape shields the soft shoot tip in darkness; BBX32 extends this protection until it’s safe to open.
    • Ethylene Activation: Underground, the plant hormone ethylene activates the BBX32 gene, signaling the seedling to stay protected.

    How does it work?

    • Light Stabilization: Once exposed to light, BBX32 is no longer broken down, allowing it to accumulate on one side of the hook.
    • Protein Chain Reaction: BBX32 activates PIF3, which then activates HLS1, the protein that directly keeps the hook bent.
    • Lab Testing: Plants were tested in different light types and sand to simulate real soil. Extra ethylene increased BBX32 activity.
    • Mutant Comparison: Plants without BBX32 opened too early. Only 25% broke through sand, compared to 40% of normal and 80% with extra BBX32.
    • Degradation Control: In darkness, COP1 breaks down BBX32. Ethylene slows this process. Light fully stabilizes BBX32.
    • Coordinated Timing: The protein’s behavior is guided by light, hormone signals, and pressure, ensuring the hook opens at the right time.

    Why is studying BBX32 important?

    • Better Crop Survival: BBX32 can help develop crops that grow well in dense, wet, or compacted soils.
    • Climate Adaptation: As climate change leads to tougher soil conditions, BBX32 can improve seedling emergence and survival.
    • Boosting Yields: Supporting hook protection even slightly longer can lead to stronger early growth and higher productivity.
    • Genetic Research: BBX32 is a potential target for gene editing in plants to improve resilience during germination.
    • Broader Insight: Studying BBX32 helps us understand how plants balance internal signals with external cues for safe growth.
    [UPSC 2018] Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in the desert areas to inhabit water loss?

    1. Hard and waxy leaves 2. Tiny leaves 3. Thorns instead of leaves

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

  • KATRIN Experiment sets strongest Limit on Neutrino Mass

    Why in the News?

    The Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino Experiment (KATRIN) in Germany has achieved a major breakthrough in the search to measure the mass of the neutrino.

    What are Neutrinos?

    • Neutrinos are tiny, electrically neutral subatomic particles with an extremely small mass.
    • They come in 3 types (or “flavours”): electron, muon, and tau neutrinos.
    • Neutrinos are produced in nuclear reactions, such as those in the Sun, nuclear reactors, and supernovae.
    • They rarely interact with matter, making them very difficult to detect.
    • Their ability to change from one flavour to another (called oscillation) proves they have mass.
    • Neutrinos challenge the Standard Model of physics, hinting at undiscovered particles or forces.

    About KATRIN Experiment:

    • What is it: The KATRIN experiment is based at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany and aims to measure the absolute mass of electron antineutrinos with unmatched precision.
    • Launch and Operation: It was inaugurated in 2018 and began data collection in 2019, with its latest results derived from 259 days of measurements.
    • Scientific Principle: KATRIN uses tritium beta decay, where tritium breaks into helium, an electron, and a neutrino, to study the energy spectrum of emitted electrons.
    • Focus Area: The experiment analyzes electrons near the energy endpoint, since they are most influenced by the neutrino mass.

    How KATRIN measures Neutrino mass?

    • KATRIN focuses on electrons that are emitted with energies close to the maximum limit (called the endpoint), which are most affected by the neutrino mass.
    • A retarding electric field filters out lower-energy electrons, allowing only the highest-energy ones to be measured precisely.
    • By analyzing millions of such decay events, KATRIN estimates the upper limit on the neutrino mass.

    India’s Achievements in Neutrino Observations:

    • Historical Detection: India was among the first countries to detect atmospheric neutrinos in 1965 at the Kolar Gold Fields (KGF), marking a pioneering achievement in neutrino physics.
    • INO Project: The India-Based Neutrino Observatory (INO) is under development in Tamil Nadu, set to become a premier underground research facility.
    • Flagship Detector: INO will house the Iron Calorimeter (ICAL), a 50,000-tonne magnetized detector, which will be the largest of its kind in the world.
    • Applications: INO will advance detector technologies, enable training in high-energy physics, and have potential applications in medical imaging and electronics.
    • Global Integration: India’s involvement in neutrino science positions it to contribute unique insights to global efforts, complementing projects like IceCube.
    [UPSC 2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the Planning Commission as a mega science project under the 11th five-Year Plan. In this context, consider the following statements:

    1. Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.

    2.Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.

    3.Neutrinos have a negligible, but nonzero mass.

    4.Trillions of Neutrinos pass through human body every second.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1,2,3 and 4 *

     

  • Kashmir Merino: India’s First Gene-Edited Sheep

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST) have successfully created India’s first gene-edited sheep—a Kashmir Merino breed.

    Kashmir Merino: India's First Gene-Edited Sheep

    About Kashmir Merino Sheep:

    • Overview: Kashmir Merino is a high-quality domestic sheep breed known for its fine wool and ability to thrive in cold climates.
    • Genetics: It was developed by crossbreeding exotic Merino rams with local sheep breeds in Jammu and Kashmir.
    • Characteristics: The breed produces soft, dense wool with high fibre quality, making it valuable for the textile industry.
    • Resilience: It is well-adapted to high-altitude Himalayan conditions, including extreme cold and low oxygen levels.
    • Significance: It plays a key role in regional livestock economies, contributing significantly to wool and mutton production in Jammu and Kashmir.

    Gene-Editing Breakthrough in Kashmir Merino:

    • Gene Targeted: Researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 technology to edit the myostatin gene, which normally inhibits muscle growth.
    • Impact: Disabling this gene led to a 30% increase in muscle mass, resulting in higher meat yield and improved economic returns for farmers.
    • Lab-to-Field Success: The edited embryo was developed in a laboratory and then successfully implanted into a surrogate mother, marking a full-cycle gene-editing achievement.
    • Biotech Significance: This success represents a major advancement in India’s livestock biotechnology, opening new paths for research in disease resistance, wool quality enhancement, and production of transgenic proteins.
    [UPSC 2017] What is the application of somatic cell nuclear transfer technology?

    Options: (a) Production of biolarvicides (b) Manufacture of biodegradable plastics (c) Reproductive cloning of animals* (d) Production of organisms free of diseases

     

  • Rare Proton Emission in Astatine Isotope

    Why in the News?

    In a groundbreaking discovery, an international team of nuclear physicists from Finland has measured the proton emission and half-life of 188Astatine (188At)—the heaviest proton-emitting isotope ever observed.

    What is Proton Emission?  

    • Atomic Structure: Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
    • Radioactive Decay: When atoms are unstable, they become stable by emitting particles through a process called radioactive decay.
    • Common Emissions: Most atoms emit alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays during decay.
    • Rare Emission: In very rare cases, an atom can emit a proton, a process known as proton emission.
    • Conditions for Emission: Proton emission occurs only in proton-rich nuclei that lie on the extreme edge of nuclear stability.
    • Detection Difficulty: These atoms are extremely hard to create in laboratories and usually exist for less than a second, making them hard to study.

    Discovery of Proton Emission in 188-Astatine:

    • What is Astatine: Astatine (At) is a radioactive, halogenous element with atomic number 85, belonging to the halogen family (Group 17) on the periodic table. It’s a rarest natural element on Earth, not naturally occurring in significant quantities due to its short half-life.
    • Research Breakthrough: Scientists from Finland, India, and Portugal jointly studied a rare isotope called 188-Astatine.
    • Method: The atom was made by bombarding a silver target with strontium ions in a high-powered accelerator.
    • Observed Event: After its formation, 188-Astatine emitted a proton and transformed into polonium within 190 microseconds.
    • Role of Indian Scientists: Experts from IIT Roorkee used computer simulations to confirm the event and revealed that the atom’s shape resembled a watermelon, elongated and stretched.

    Significance of the Discovery:

    • Scientific First: This was the first recorded instance of proton emission from astatine, a rare and heavy element.
    • Understanding Atomic Limits: The discovery helps scientists learn how unstable atoms behave and where the proton-holding limits of atomic nuclei lie.
    • Contribution to Nuclear Science: It enhances our understanding of element formation in extreme environments like stars and nuclear reactors.
    • Future Implications: Such discoveries can contribute to medical advances, especially in developing radioactive materials for cancer treatment.
    [UPSC 2024] With reference to radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), consider the following statements:

    1. RTGs are miniature fission reactors. 2. RTGs are used for powering the onboard systems of spacecrafts. 3. RTGs can use Plutonium-238, which is a by-product of weapons development.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • ‘Bharat Gen’ AI-based multimodal LLM for Indian languages launched

    Why in the News?

    Union Minister of State for Science & Technology has launched ‘Bharat Gen’, India’s first indigenously developed AI-based Large Language Model (LLM) tailored for Indian languages.

    About Bharat Gen:

    • What is it: Bharat Gen is India’s first homegrown AI-based multimodal large language model (LLM) supporting 22 Indian languages.
    • Developed By: Created under the National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS) and implemented by the TIH Foundation for IoT and IoE at IIT Bombay.
    • Key Features:
      • Understands text, speech, and image inputs.
      • Works across India’s diverse languages and cultures.
      • Designed to be ethical, inclusive, and culturally rooted.
    • Support and Collaboration: Backed by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and developed in collaboration with top academic and AI institutions.
    • Bharat Data Sagar: A national effort to collect language data for lesser-known Indian languages to train future AI tools.
    • Real-World Use: In places like Udhampur, an AI doctor powered by Bharat Gen is helping patients in their native language.

    What are Large Language Models (LLMs)?

    • Large Language Models (LLMs) are advanced AI systems trained on massive amounts of text data to understand and generate human-like language. They use deep learning and the Transformer architecture to predict and produce text based on user prompts.

      Features:

      • Trained on huge datasets (process data through mathematical optimization to minimise prediction errors.)
      • Contain billions of parameters
      • Can answer questions, summarize, translate, write code, and generate content

      Examples:

      • GPT-4
      • LLaMA
      • Claude

      Limitations:

      • May generate inaccurate information
      • Can reflect biases in data
      • Lack true human understanding
    [UPSC 2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?(1) Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units (2) Create meaningful short stories and songs (3) Disease diagnosis (4) Text-to-Speech Conversion (5) Wireless transmission of electrical energy Select the correct answer using the code given below:Options: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only* (c) 2, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

  • SHUKR Gene in Flowering Plants

    Why in the News?

    Flowering plants appeared around 130 million years ago and rapidly diversified, puzzling scientists including Charles Darwin, who called it an “abominable mystery”.

    A new study by CSIR-CCMB, Hyderabad, has identified the SHUKR gene, which controls pollen development in flowering plants.

    SHUKR Gene in Flowering Plants

    About the SHUKR Gene in Flowering Plants

    • What is SHUKR? It is a newly discovered gene found in flowering plants like Arabidopsis thaliana. It plays a key role in forming pollen, which plants need to reproduce.
    • Function in the Plant Life Cycle: SHUKR is active during the sporophyte phase (the main plant body stage) and helps in producing healthy, viable pollen.
    • Effect of Gene Loss: If SHUKR is missing or not working, the plant fails to make good pollen, leading to poor or no reproduction.
    • How SHUKR Works: It controls F-box genes, which remove old proteins and replace them with new ones to help pollen grow well.
    • Adaptive Advantage: SHUKR and F-box genes evolve quickly, allowing plants to adjust to harsh conditions like heat, cold, or drought.
    • Evolutionary Origin: This gene first appeared 125 million years ago in eudicots, a plant group that now includes three-fourths of all flowering plants.
    • Why it matters: SHUKR shows that pollen-making is closely linked with the rest of the plant, challenging the earlier belief that these processes were separate.
    • Significance: Climate change causes heat-induced pollen damage in flowering plants, but genes like SHUKR could help develop climate-resilient crops.

    Back2Basics: Darwin’s “Abominable Mystery”

    • Darwin’s Confusion: Charles Darwin was puzzled by the sudden appearance and rapid spread of flowering plants about 130 million years ago — calling it an “abominable mystery”.
    • Mismatch with Evolutionary Pace: According to standard evolution theory, species change slowly over time, but flowering plants diversified very quickly, showing great variety.
    • Genetic Explanation: The SHUKR gene may solve this mystery by showing how flowering plants gained molecular tools to adapt and reproduce faster.
    • New Insight: This discovery offers a genetic explanation for the rapid rise of flowering plants and helps clarify Darwin’s long-standing puzzle.

     

    [UPSC 2017] Consider the following statements:

    1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic markers for disease resistance and drought tolerance in various crop plants.

    2. This technique helps in reducing the time required to develop new varieties of crop plants.

    3. It can be used to decipher the host-pathogen relationships in crops.

    Select the correct- answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only  (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • JNCASR develops Fast-Charging Sodium-Ion Battery

    Why in the News?

    Scientists at Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru have developed a super-fast charging Sodium-ion battery.

    About Sodium-Ion Battery and Its Working:

    • What it is: Sodium-ion batteries are rechargeable batteries that use sodium (Na⁺) ions to carry electric charge, instead of lithium.
    • How it works: During charging and discharging, sodium ions move between the anode (negative) and cathode (positive) — similar to how lithium-ion batteries function.
    • Innovation: A sodium-ion battery developed by JNCASR uses NASICON-type chemistry, a special material structure that ensures fast ion movement and stability.
    • Performance Boost: The team used nano-particles, added a carbon coating, and used aluminium doping to improve charging speed and battery life.
    • Fast Charging & Long Life: The battery can charge up to 80% in 6 minutes and last over 3,000 charge-discharge cycles.
    • Tested for Safety: The battery passed tests using electrochemical cycling and quantum simulations, proving it is safe and durable.

    Advantages over Lithium-Ion Batteries:

    • Sodium is abundant and cheaper than lithium, and it can be extracted from seawater.
    • Sodium-ion batteries are safer, as they can be transported at zero voltage and used in high temperatures without risk of fire.
    • They are more eco-friendly, with less environmental damage during extraction compared to lithium.
    • Material costs are lower because they use aluminium instead of copper.
    • India can reduce its dependence on China, which controls much of the lithium battery supply chain.
    • These batteries are ideal for renewable energy applications, such as solar grids, electric vehicles, drones, and rural electrification in extreme climates.
    [UPSC 2025] In the context of electric vehicles, consider the following elements:

    I. Cobalt II. Graphite III. Lithium IV. Nickel

    How many of the above usually make up battery cathodes?

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three * (d) All the four

     

  • New Cambrian sea creature Mosura fentoni discovered in Canada

    Why in the News?

    Scientists have discovered a new sea creature from the Cambrian period named Mosura fentoni, found in Canada’s Burgess Shale, one of the most important fossil sites in the world.

    New Cambrian sea creature Mosura fentoni discovered in Canada

    About Mosura fentoni:

    • Discovery Site: Mosura fentoni was discovered in Canada’s Burgess Shale, a well-known Cambrian fossil site.
    • Biological Group: It belongs to radiodonts, an extinct group of marine predators related to insects, crabs, and spiders.
    • Size and Structure: The creature is very small (1.5 to 6 cm) but has a long, complex body made of 26 segments.
    • Body Zones:
      • The neck supports the head.
      • The mesotrunk has six paddle-shaped flaps for swimming, like mini propellers.
      • The posterotrunk has up to 16 segments with rows of thin gills and small flaps.
    • Breathing Adaptation: The gills in the posterotrunk likely acted as a breathing zone, similar to the tails of horseshoe crabs that help collect oxygen.

    Evolutionary Importance:

    • Arthropod Evolution: The find helps explain how early arthropods (like modern insects and crustaceans) evolved diverse forms.
    • Advanced Abilities: Despite its small size, M. fentoni had specialised swimming and breathing systems.
    • Evolutionary Position: It is placed near the base of the hurdiid family in the radiodont family tree.
    • Segment Specialisation: Its body shows early examples of segment division for specific tasks — a trait common in modern arthropods.
    • Key Insight: The discovery suggests that complex body planning in arthropods began much earlier than previously thought.

    Back2Basics: Cambrian Period:

    • The Cambrian Period is a division of the geologic time scale that lasted from approximately 541 million to 485 million years ago.
    • It is the first period of the Paleozoic Era and follows the Precambrian Eon.
    • It is significant because it marks a time when most major animal groups first appeared in the fossil record.
    • This period is characterized by the development of complex, multicellular life, especially in marine environments.
    • The Cambrian Explosion refers to a relatively short evolutionary event—occurring around 541 million years ago—during which a vast number of new animal species and body plans rapidly emerged.
    • Within about 20 to 25 million years, nearly all major animal phyla (like arthropods, mollusks, and chordates) appeared.
    • This explosion of biodiversity is seen as one of the most important evolutionary events in Earth’s history.

     

    [UPSC 2019] The word ‘Denisovan’ is sometimes mentioned in media in reference to-

    Options: (a) fossils of a kind of dinosaurs (b) an early human species* (c) a cave system found in North-East India. (d) a geological period in the history of Indian subcontinent

     

  • Scientists create 2D Metal Sheets using High-Pressure Technique

    Why in the News?

    A team of researchers from top Chinese scientific institutions has reported a major breakthrough in the creation of atomically thin 2D metal sheets using a novel high-pressure sandwich method.

    About the 2D Metal Created:

    • Definition: 2D metals are only one or two atoms thick, so electrons can move in just two dimensions.
    • Quantum Confinement: Electrons in 2D metals are restricted to specific energy levels, similar to how they behave in atoms.
    • Scientific Interest: Metals like bismuth, tin, and lead in 2D form are being studied for their electrical, magnetic, and quantum properties.
    • Applications: Their special properties make them useful for quantum computing, sensors, and advanced electronics.

    Technologies Involved:

    • Quantum Dots: These are tiny semiconductors where electrons are tightly confined, creating quantised energy states.
    • Quantum Confinement: In quantum dots, electrons can’t move freely in any direction, leading to discrete energy levels.
    • Link to 2D Metals: In 2D metals, electrons are confined in two dimensions, changing conductivity, magnetism, and optical behaviour.
    • Process: Chinese scientists created 2D metals by sandwiching metal powder between two MoS₂-coated sapphire layers.
    • Steps involved: The structure is heated, twisted, and pressed to form ultra-thin sheets, then cooled and peeled off.
    • Material Choice: MoS₂ and sapphire were chosen for their strength, smoothness, and low chemical reaction with metal.

    Note: 

    Quantum confinement occurs when a particle like an electron is trapped in an extremely small space, such as a nanoscale material. This restriction changes its energy levels, making them discrete instead of continuous. As a result, the material’s properties—like color and conductivity—can change with size.

     

    [UPSC 2012] Graphene is frequently in the news recently. What is its importance?

    1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity.

    2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far.

    3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency.

    4. It can be used as ‘conducting electrodes’ required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs.

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • Scientists at CERN Create Gold from Lead

    Why in the News?

    In a recent breakthrough at CERN’s ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment), scientists observed that near-collisions of lead ions in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) can result in the formation of gold atoms and other novel nuclei.

    How was Lead converted into Gold?

    • In ultra-peripheral collisions at the Large Hadron Collider, lead atoms passed close without touching, creating strong electromagnetic fields.
    • These fields released photons that caused some lead atoms to lose 3 protons and 2 neutrons, transforming them into gold-203.
    • Between 2015–2018, 86 billion gold atoms were created—just 29 picograms—scientifically important but not commercially valuable.

    About the Large Hadron Collider (LHC):

    • The LHC has been working since September 2008 and is the world’s largest particle accelerator.
    • Development: Between 1998 and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists, and hundreds of universities and laboratories across more than 100 countries.
    • Location: It lies in a 27-kilometre tunnel under the France–Switzerland border, near Geneva, and is operated by CERN.
    • Purpose: It smashes protons or lead atoms together to help scientists study the smallest building blocks of the universe.
    • Working Mechanism: About 9,600 magnets guide particles in a circle using strong magnetic fields.
    • Speed: Particles travel at 99.999999% the speed of light, creating conditions like the Big Bang.
    • Particles Studied: The LHC focuses on quarks (which come in six types) and gluons, which hold quarks together using the strong nuclear force.
    • Members: 24 countries spans across the Europe. Japan and US are Observer.
    • India and LHC: 
      • India signed a cooperation agreement with CERN in 1991 and joined its Large Hadron Collider project in 1996; it became an Associate Member in 2016 after gaining Observer status in 2002.
      • India also helped design LHC components such as superconducting magnets, cryogenic systems, and accelerator protection systems.

    About the ALICE Experiment:

    • ALICE is designed to study heavy-ion collisions, mainly using lead atoms.
    • Objective: It recreates matter similar to that formed just after the Big Bang, helping us understand the early universe.
    • Detection Range: ALICE can study both large particle blasts and rare, low-energy events with high precision.
    • Size and Setup: It weighs 10,000 tons, measures 26 × 16 × 16 metres, and sits 56 metres underground.
    • Members: As of 2024, ALICE includes over 1,900 scientists from 174 institutes across 39 countries, including India.
    • India’s Contribution: Key instruments like the Photon Multiplicity Detector for ALICE and the Hadron Outer Calorimeter for CMS.

     

    [UPSC 2009] In the year 2008, which one of the following conducted a complex scientific experiment in which sub-atomic particles were accelerated to nearly the speed of light?

    Options: (a) European Space Agency (b) European Organization for Nuclear Research* (c) International Atomic Energy Agency (d) National Aeronautics and Space administration