💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (July Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

Subject: Bilateral Relations

1. Major World Events
2. India’s Interests in neighbourhood
3. Effects of our Policies

  • [3rd June 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Strengthening the U.S.-India subsea cable agenda 

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2024] The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples.

    Linkage: The strategic imperative of countering China’s influence and building alternative supply chains and alliances, which is a primary reason why strengthening the U.S.-India subsea cable agenda is crucial.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  The strategic and commercial engagement between India and the United States is being deepened, with subsea cables emerging as a frontline asset in this collaboration. Subsea cables, which carry over 95% of international data and form the backbone of global internet infrastructure, are being recognized for their critical geostrategic value. Efforts are being made by India to diversify its digital infrastructure under the proposed TRUST framework (Technology for Resilient, Open and Unified Security and Trust).

     Today’s editorial will discuss the problems related to subsea cable systems and the actions taken by the Indian Government. This information will be useful for GS Paper II (International Relations) and GS Paper III (Science & Technology).

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    The urgency to secure and expand subsea cable systems is rising, particularly in light of disruptions like the Red Sea cable sabotage by Houthi rebels in 2024.

    Why are Subsea Cables crucial in India-U.S. strategic cooperation?

    • Foundation of Global Digital Connectivity: Subsea cables carry over 95% of international data traffic, forming the physical backbone of the internet and digital economy. Securing these is vital for protecting critical infrastructure and ensuring uninterrupted communication between nations. Eg: The U.S. and India are focusing on trusted subsea cable systems under the TRUST framework to reduce reliance on Chinese-controlled infrastructure.
    • Strategic Response to China’s Digital Expansion: China’s Digital Silk Road is rapidly laying subsea cables across the Indo-Pacific, posing geopolitical and cybersecurity concerns. India-U.S. cooperation on secure cable networks counters this influence and promotes trusted alternatives. Eg: The upcoming India-U.S. trade agreement includes provisions for enhancing digital infrastructure as a counter to China’s presence in the Indo-Pacific.
    • Enabling Regional Digital Resilience and Trade: Joint efforts in building resilient cable systems support broader technology cooperation and secure trade flows, particularly as India emerges as a digital hub in Asia. Eg: Meta’s investment in a 50,000-km undersea cable project connecting five continents is backed by U.S.-India cooperation, reinforcing digital ties and strategic alignment.

    What is the role of the TRUST framework in securing digital supply chains?

    • Promotes Resilient and Secure Digital Infrastructure: The TRUST (Technology for Resilient, Open and Unified Security and Trust) framework aims to build trusted digital ecosystems by reducing dependence on untrusted vendors and creating secure, interoperable technology supply chains. Eg: TRUST supports investments in secure subsea cables that avoid reliance on Chinese-controlled infrastructure.
    • Strengthens India’s Role as a Regional Security Provider: The framework acknowledges India’s potential as a net security provider in the Indo-Pacific, aligning with U.S. efforts to de-risk strategic technologies and build redundancy in digital connectivity. Eg: TRUST initiatives encourage India to lead regional subsea cable projects using trusted suppliers.
    • Facilitates U.S. Investment and Technical Cooperation: TRUST enables concessional finance, cybersecurity assistance, and encourages American companies to anchor digital infrastructure projects in India and the region. Eg: Under TRUST, Meta’s multi-year undersea cable investment project aligns with U.S.-India strategic digital cooperation.

    How can India become a regional hub for subsea connectivity?

    • Leverage Strategic Geographic Location: India is centrally positioned between Europe, Africa, and Southeast Asia, near key maritime choke points like the Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, and Bab-el-Mandeb, making it ideal for global cable routes. Eg: India can serve as a transit junction for Africa-Asia and Europe-Asia subsea cables.
    • Expand and Diversify Cable Landing Infrastructure: India must increase the number of landing stations beyond existing clusters to reduce regional risk and build redundancy in the network. Eg: Most of India’s 17 cables land in Mumbai; expanding to ports along the east and west coasts can distribute traffic load.
    • Streamline Regulatory and Clearance Processes: Simplifying India’s licensing regime and enabling faster cable repair operations will attract more international projects and reduce downtime risks. Eg: Reducing the current requirement of over 50 clearances can boost investor confidence and facilitate timely repairs.

    What challenges hinder India’s subsea cable infrastructure?

    • Complex and Burdensome Licensing Regime: Deploying subsea cables in India requires navigating a maze of over 50 clearances across multiple ministries, discouraging investment and delaying projects.
      Eg: Lengthy approvals from customs, naval authorities, and telecom departments hinder timely cable deployments.
    • Overconcentration of Landing Stations: Most cables land in a narrow stretch in Mumbai, making the network vulnerable to disruption from natural disasters or sabotage. Eg: 15 of 17 subsea cables land in Mumbai, despite India’s 11,098 km coastline, limiting redundancy and resilience.
    • Lack of Domestic Repair Capabilities: India depends on foreign-flagged ships for cable repairs, which take 3–5 months to respond due to long travel times and clearance delays. Eg: Repair vessels from Singapore or Dubai face delays due to India’s slow customs and naval permissions process.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government? 

    • Policy push for TRUST framework: India is partnering with the U.S. to implement the Technology for Resilient, Open and Unified Security and Trust (TRUST) framework, focusing on trusted digital infrastructure and secure supply chains. Eg: TRUST includes collaboration on regional subsea cable investments and cybersecurity standards.
    • Expansion of Subsea Cable Projects: The government has supported large-scale undersea cable initiatives to expand India’s role in global connectivity. Eg: The India-U.S. backed Meta project, spanning 50,000 km, aims to connect five continents, enhancing India’s digital footprint.

    Way forward: 

    • Accelerate Regulatory Reforms: Simplify and streamline the complex licensing and clearance processes to attract greater investments and enable faster deployment and repair of subsea cables.
    • Build Domestic Repair and Infrastructure Ecosystem: Develop Indian-flagged cable repair vessels and expand cable landing stations along the coast to enhance network resilience, reduce downtime, and establish India as a reliable regional connectivity hub.

  • [31st May 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Pakistan’s India war 

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2016] Increasing cross-border terrorist attacks in India and growing interference in the internal affairs of several member-states by Pakistan are not conducive for the future of SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation). Explain with suitable examples.

    Linkage: Pakistan is “continually finding ways and means every few years to provoke a conflict” and seeks to “bleed India by a thousand cuts”. These actions are often manifested as cross-border attacks and interference, making this question highly relevant to the conflict dynamic described in the article. This question directly addresses “cross-border terrorist attacks in India” and “interference in the internal affairs… by Pakistan”.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  India’s recent clash with Pakistan highlights a troubling and ongoing pattern — Pakistan’s military-led and radicalised government keeps trying to destabilise India. Even though India has a clear advantage in technology and strategy, the risk of future conflict remains high. This is due to Pakistan’s lowering nuclear threshold, rising religious nationalism, and growing ties with powerful allies. The clash also showed how modern warfare now relies heavily on technology like drones, radar, and advanced missiles. It exposed India’s weak spots, especially in space-based defence — a major concern if India faces a two-front war with both China and Pakistan.

    Today’s editorial will talk about the ongoing pattern — Pakistan’s military-led and radicalised government keeps trying to destabilise India. This content would help in GS Paper II ( IR) and GS Paper III (Defence).

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    The recent conflict shows that Pakistan’s military-led leadership keeps trying to find ways to disrupt or hold back India’s progress.

    What drives Pakistan to provoke India repeatedly?

    • Military Mindset Seeking to Undermine India’s Progress: Pakistan’s military-dominated leadership aims to weaken India continuously despite past defeats, pursuing a strategy to “bleed India by a thousand cuts.” Eg: Recurrent cross-border skirmishes and proxy insurgencies in Kashmir.
    • Ideological and Religious Nationalism: Pakistan’s identity is deeply rooted in religious nationalism, seeing India’s secular democracy as its ideological enemy. Kashmir is viewed as a “jugular vein” essential to Pakistan’s national ambition. Eg: Statements by Pakistan’s army chief emphasizing Pakistan as a religious state based on the ‘Kalima’.
    • Political Instability and Military Control: The military controls Pakistan’s politics, using conflict with India to legitimize its authority and distract from internal issues. Eg: Military interference in elections and sidelining of civilian leaders like Imran Khan.

    Why is Pakistan’s military leadership crucial to regional peace?

    • Military Dominance Over Political Power: Pakistan’s military controls key decisions, often overriding civilian government, making it the primary actor in India-Pakistan relations. Eg: The military’s role in disqualifying Imran Khan from elections and influencing the civilian leadership.
    • Driver of Conflict and Peace Prospects: The military’s stance determines whether Pakistan pursues conflict or peace with India, as it often promotes hostility to maintain its influence. Eg: Recent provocations and cross-border attacks orchestrated under military leadership despite diplomatic efforts.
    • Influence on Regional Stability: As a nuclear-armed force, the military’s policies significantly impact regional security and peace, especially given Pakistan’s alliance with China and involvement in proxy wars. Eg: Pakistan’s military endorsement of religious nationalism and hardline Kashmir policies increases tensions in South Asia.

    How did the conflict show the role of drones and tech in warfare?

    • Rise of Drone Warfare: The conflict highlighted the increased use of drones for reconnaissance and strikes, making warfare more precise and cost-effective. Eg: Pakistan deployed Turkish Songer drones, while India used Kamikaze drones for targeted responses.
    • Airborne Systems & Escalation Dominance: Advanced airborne early warning systems and electronic warfare tools played a key role in gaining escalation dominance quickly. Eg: India’s use of Rafale jets supported by multi-layered air defence systems like Aakash, S-400, and Barak ensured superior aerial control.
    • Integration of Tech in Modern Combat: The conflict revealed the importance of system integration, electronic countermeasures, and kill chain efficiency in tech-driven warfare. Eg: Speculation on whether a Chinese J-10C could use Pakistani radar guidance underscored interest in interoperability and tech collaboration in proxy conflicts.

    Who controls Pakistan’s key decisions today?

    • Pakistan’s military, specifically the Chief of Army Staff (now Field Marshal) Asim Munir, controls the country. The civilian government, led by Shehbaz Sharif, is a puppet government subordinate to the military.
    • The military interferes with elections, denies political rights (e.g., to Imran Khan), and shapes Pakistan’s strategic outlook.

    Where are the gaps in India’s defence readiness?

    • Lack of Space-Based Surveillance: India lacks a dedicated satellite system for real-time surveillance, early warning, and secure communication, which is critical for modern warfare. Eg:  India must improve its satellite-based reconnaissance to prepare for a two-front warscenario involving Pakistan and China.
    • Limited Preparedness for Two-Front War: While India’s strength is sufficient against Pakistan alone, a simultaneous conflict with China would strain resources and expose strategic vulnerabilities. Eg: The need to balance the combined capabilities of both adversaries highlights the absence of a cohesive dual-front strategy.

    Way forward: 

    • Boost Indigenous Space and Surveillance Capabilities: India must rapidly invest in and deploy a dedicated constellation of military satellites for real-time reconnaissance, early warning, and secure communication to ensure situational awareness across borders. Eg: Collaboration between ISRO, DRDO, and private players can fast-track satellite-based surveillance systemsto monitor threats from both Pakistan and China.
    • Formulate a Coherent Two-Front War Doctrine: India should develop a comprehensive dual-front military strategy, including integrated theatre commands, logistics readiness, and joint force training, to ensure faster, coordinated responses. Eg: Establishing Integrated Battle Groups (IBGs) and enhancing border infrastructure can increase India’s mobility and readiness for high-intensity, multi-front warfare.

  • [28th May 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The silver jubilee of a Strategic Partnership

    PYQ Relevance:

     [UPSC 2019] The time has come for India and Japan to build a strong contemporary relationship, one involving global and strategic partnership that will have a great significance for Asia and the world as a whole.’ Comment.

    Linkage: The term “strategic partnership” in the context of India’s relationship with another major country (Japan). It is directly analogous to the India-Germany strategic partnership and prompts discussion on its global and regional significance, mirroring the description in article.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  India and Germany have built a strong bilateral relationship based on shared democratic values, economic complementarity, and a common vision for global peace and sustainable development. Germany launched its dedicated ‘Focus on India’ strategy and committed €10 billion under the Indo-German Green and Sustainable Development Partnership (GSDP). Over 2,000 German companies now operate in India, generating 750,000 jobs. With 50,000 Indian students studying in Germany and expanding business integration, both countries have transformed their partnership from a transactional engagement into a strategic, transformational alliance.

    Today’s editorial will discuss the relationship between India and Germany. This content would help in GS Paper II ( International Relations).

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    his month marks 25 years of the Indo-German Strategic Partnership, celebrating a key milestone in their growing ties, shared goals, and long-standing cooperation across defence, economy, and sustainability.

    What are the Key Pillars of the India-Germany partnership?

    • Peace: Both countries share a vision of a peaceful, stable, and rules-based world. Eg: Regular Intergovernmental Government Consultations that strengthen political ties and cooperation.
    • Prosperity: Focuses on economic growth, job creation, and improving quality of life. Eg: Around 2,000 German companies operate in India, creating more than 750,000 jobs.
    • People-to-People Ties: Cultural and educational exchanges deepen bilateral relations. Eg: Over 50,000 Indian students study in Germany, the largest foreign student group there.
    • Future of the Planet (Green Development): Cooperation on climate change, renewable energy, and sustainability projects. Eg: Germany’s €10 billion Indo-German Green and Sustainable Development Partnership supporting solar and wind projects in Gujarat.
    • Technology and Innovation Collaboration: Joint scientific research and integration in high-tech industries. Eg: Indian researchers in top German institutions and operation of Delhi-Meerut Rapid Rail by Deutsche Bahn.

    How has defence cooperation progressed recently?

    • First Joint Exercise: In August 2024, Germany’s Air Force participated in Exercise Tarang Shakti at Sulur, marking the first-ever India-Germany joint military exercise on Indian soil. Eg: The exercise included advanced jets like Germany’s Eurofighter Typhoon, France’s Rafale, and India’s LCA Tejas.
    • High-Level Interoperability: Senior military leaders from India, Germany, France, and Spain took part, showcasing enhanced coordination and joint operations. Eg: A joint sortie involved Air Chief Marshal V. R. Chaudhari (India), Lieutenant General Ingo Gerhartz (Germany), General Stéphane Mille (France), and Air General Francisco Braco Carbo (Spain).
    • Strategic Defence Ties: The exercise paves the way for deeper defence collaboration and future joint initiativesbetween India and Germany. Eg: Germany’s participation aligns with its strategic interest in the Indo-Pacific region amid shifting global power dynamics.

    Why is the Green and Sustainable Development Partnership important?

    • Climate Action and Energy Transition: The partnership is vital for accelerating India’s shift towards clean energy and meeting its climate commitments. Eg: Germany pledged €10 billion to support India’s goal of achieving 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030, through initiatives in solar, wind, and green hydrogen sectors.
    • Sustainable Urban Development and Mobility: It promotes eco-friendly infrastructure and efficient public transport systems in growing urban centres. Eg: German-backed metro projects and Smart Cities initiatives in Nagpur and Pune have helped advance green mobility and urban resilience.
    • Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Resilience: The partnership helps protect ecological zones while enhancing local livelihoods and climate adaptability. Eg: Joint projects in the Western Ghats and Himalayas focus on afforestation, biodiversity conservation, and water resource management.

    Where are major Indo-German projects being implemented in India?

    • Gujarat – Renewable Energy Projects: Gujarat hosts large-scale solar and wind energy initiatives under the Green and Sustainable Development Partnership (GSDP). Eg: German companies are contributing to the production of wind turbine blades and setting up solar parks in the state.
    • Delhi-Meerut – Rapid Rail Project: India’s first Regional Rapid Transit System (RRTS) between Delhi and Meerut is operated in partnership with Deutsche Bahn, Germany’s national railway operator. Eg: The project showcases Indo-German cooperation in high-speed rail and urban mobility.
    • Maharashtra – Smart Cities and Urban Infrastructure: German collaboration supports urban planning, sustainable transport, and waste management under the Smart Cities Mission. Eg: Pune and Nagpur are key cities benefiting from German-backed smart infrastructure initiatives.
    • Himachal Pradesh & Uttarakhand – Biodiversity and Climate Projects: Joint efforts are underway to protect forests, watersheds, and biodiversity in India’s ecologically sensitive hill states. Eg: Indo-German projects focus on climate-resilient agriculture, forestation, and ecosystem preservation.
    • Tamil Nadu – Defence Collaboration and Skill Development: The Tarang Shakti 2024 exercise at Sulur Air Force Station marked a high point in joint military training. Eg: It highlights growing defence cooperation and also supports local capacity-building in the aerospace sector.

    Way forward: 

    • Deepen Strategic and Technological Collaboration: Expand cooperation in defence manufacturing, AI, green hydrogen, and critical technologies to strengthen strategic autonomy and shared innovation goals.
    • Enhance Sustainable Development and People-Centric Ties: Accelerate green partnerships, vocational training, and student exchanges to promote inclusive growth, climate resilience, and stronger people-to-people engagement.

  • Time for a new India-Africa digital compact

    Why in the News?

    Africa Day (May 25) marks the anniversary of the founding of the Organisation of African Unity in 1963.In this context, India’s pivot towards digital diplomacy in Africa marks a significant evolution in South-South development cooperation.

    What is the goal of Africa’s Digital Strategy?

    • Accelerate socio-economic development by placing digital innovation at the center of growth — e.g., promoting e-governance, digital education, and telemedicine through national digital platforms.
    • Enable inclusive and sustainable development by encouraging governments to adopt digital solutions aligned with continental initiatives — e.g., the Smart Africa Alliance supports digital transformation across sectors like health, education, and finance.

    How is India supporting Africa’s digital shift?

    • Sharing Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI): India is sharing scalable and affordable DPI models like Aadhaar (digital ID), UPI (digital payments), and DIKSHA (digital education). Eg: In 2024, the Bank of Namibia partnered with NPCI to develop a UPI-like payment system.
    • Technical Collaboration and Capacity Building: India is collaborating with African countries for technical implementation and skills development. Eg: Togo partnered with IIIT-Bangalore to develop a national digital ID system using India’s open-source technology.
    • Academic and Institutional Support: India is investing in long-term educational infrastructure to build digital talent. Eg: IIT Madras opened its first overseas campus in Zanzibar, offering courses in AI and Data Science.
    • Tele-education and Telemedicine Platforms: Early initiatives like the Pan-African e-Network (2009) provided digital healthcare and education through satellite and fiber-optic systems. Eg: Enabled real-time learning and consultation from Indian institutions across several African nations.
    • Promoting Open-Source and Inclusive Models: India promotes DPI as digital public goods, making them open-source and adaptable, unlike proprietary systems. Eg: Ghana linked its payment system to India’s UPI to facilitate fast and inclusive financial transactions.

    Why is India’s digital diplomacy seen as distinct from that of countries like China or the U.S.?

    • Public Good and Open-Source Model: India promotes its digital platforms as Digital Public Goods (DPGs)—open-source, scalable, and designed for inclusive access, unlike the proprietary models of the U.S. or surveillance-heavy systems of China. Eg: India’s open-source Modular Open-Source Identification Platform adopted by Togo shows its focus on affordability and public benefit.
    • Co-development and Capacity Building: India emphasizes partnership over patronage, focusing on skill-building and co-creating solutions rather than just exporting tech or infrastructure. Eg: The IIT Madras campus in Zanzibar trains African students in AI and Data Science, linking digital growth with education and job creation.
    • Respect for Local Priorities: India’s approach is non-impositional, engaging with African countries based on their needs without attaching strategic conditions, unlike U.S. or China’s often interest-driven engagements. Eg: Countries like Ghana and Zambia adopted India’s DPI voluntarily because it suited their national digital goals—not due to debt obligations or geopolitical pressure.

    What challenges block Africa’s digital growth?

    • High Cost of Digital Access: Expensive data and devices make it difficult for many people, especially in low-income and rural areas, to access digital services. Eg: In several African countries, mobile data costs over 5% of average monthly income, limiting internet usage.
    • Digital Divide and Inequality: There is a significant rural-urban gap in internet connectivity and a gender gap in digital access and literacy. Eg: Women in sub-Saharan Africa are 37% less likely than men to use mobile internet, widening socio-economic disparities.
    • Weak Energy Infrastructure: Reliable electricity is essential for digital services, but many African regions lack consistent power supply, slowing digital infrastructure deployment. Eg: In countries like Nigeria, frequent power outages disrupt digital services and internet reliability.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Affordable Access: Invest in low-cost internet infrastructure and subsidize digital devices to bridge the digital divide, especially in rural and underserved communities.
    • Strengthen Energy and Digital Infrastructure: Expand renewable energy solutions and resilient digital networks to ensure reliable connectivity and power for sustained digital growth.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2015]  Increasing interest of India in Africa has its pros and cons. Critically examine.

    Linkage: The emergence of a digital partnership and the idea of an India-Africa digital compact are manifestations of this increasing interest. Examining the pros and cons of such engagement would involve considering various aspects, including digital collaboration.

  • [24th May 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A medical oxygen access gap SE Asia must bridge

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2024] In a crucial domain like the public healthcare system, the Indian State should play a vital role to contain the adverse impact of marketisation of the system. Suggest some measures through which the State can enhance the reach of public healthcare at the grassroots level.

    Linkage: The role of the state in the public healthcare system and asks for measures to enhance the reach of public healthcare, particularly at the grassroots level. The “medical oxygen access gap” is fundamentally a problem of the public healthcare system’s inability to reach everyone with this essential medicine.

    Mentor’s Comment: Recently, the oxygen shortage has been very serious in South Asia and East Asia-Pacific, where 78% and 74% of people do not have proper access to medical oxygen. Even though oxygen is essential for saving lives and became widely known during the COVID-19 pandemic, many low- and middle-income countries still face problems with its high cost, low supply, and poor access. Unlike medicines, there is no replacement for oxygen, which makes this a serious issue of fairness, basic rights, and survival. The WHO and The Lancet have suggested solutions, but progress has been slow. This is not just about fixing systems—it’s about saving lives, and action is urgently needed.

    Today’s editorial talks about the problem of oxygen shortage in Southeast Asia. This topic is useful for GS Paper II (International Relations and Health Sector).

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Recently,’ The Lancet Global Health Commission has pointed out a serious and ongoing medical oxygen crisis, with 5 billion people around the world unable to get safe, good-quality, and affordable medical oxygen.

    What challenges hinder global access to medical oxygen?

    • Lack of Equipment: Many hospitals in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) lack basic tools like pulse oximeters and oxygen supply systems. Eg: Only 54% of hospitals in LMICs have pulse oximeters; 58% have access to medical oxygen.
    • High Financial Burden: Expanding oxygen infrastructure requires large investments, which LMICs struggle to afford. Eg: An estimated $6.8 billion is needed globally, with $2.6 billion required in South Asia alone.
    • Shortage of Trained Technicians: Lack of biomedical engineers leads to poor maintenance of oxygen plants and frequent equipment failures. Eg: In rural areas, oxygen concentrators remain unused due to absence of trained personnel.
    • Power Supply Issues: Unreliable electricity hinders oxygen production, especially in remote or rural regions. Eg: Nigeria and Ethiopia adopted solar-powered oxygen systems to address power disruptions.
    • Weak Policy and Regulatory Frameworks: Absence of strong regulations affects the quality, storage, and distribution of medical oxygen. Eg: In Bangladesh, a 2021 health system assessment by PATH and USAID found that lack of national oxygen guidelines and standardised protocols led to irregular supply chains and compromised oxygen quality in many public hospitals, especially in rural areas.

    Why is oxygen demand high in South and East Asia?

    • High Population Density: These regions have some of the world’s most densely populated countries, leading to higher disease burden and medical oxygen demand. Eg: India and China together account for over one-third of the global population, increasing strain on healthcare infrastructure during health crises like COVID-19.
    • Prevalence of Respiratory Diseases: High rates of respiratory illnesses such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) elevate oxygen needs. Eg: According to WHO, India sees over 120,000 pneumonia-related child deaths annually, many requiring oxygen therapy.
    • Inadequate Healthcare Infrastructure in Rural Areas: Many remote and underserved areas lack sufficient oxygen production, storage, and delivery systems. Eg: During the second COVID-19 wave in Nepal, rural hospitals reported severe oxygen shortages due to lack of concentrators and cylinders.

    Where has WHO improved oxygen access through cooperation?

    • Bhutan: WHO partnered with Nepal’s National Health Training Center to train biomedical engineers and technicians. Eg: This led to the installation of state-of-the-art PSA oxygen plants in Bhutan, ensuring sustainable operations and maintenance.
    • Nepal: WHO supported capacity-building through regional training programs and technical support. Eg: Trained personnel strengthened Nepal’s oxygen infrastructure, especially during COVID-19.
    • South-East Asia Region (broad cooperation): WHO facilitated intra-regional collaboration to boost oxygen capacity and resource sharing. Eg: Regional cooperation helped countries like Bangladesh and Sri Lanka improve oxygen planning and emergency response.

    Who is responsible for strengthening oxygen ecosystems?

    • Governments: They must integrate oxygen access into universal health coverage and emergency preparedness plans, while ensuring quality standards and regulatory frameworks. Eg: The Indian government scaled up PSA oxygen plants under the PM CARES Fund during the COVID-19 crisis.
    • Private Sector: Industry must invest in local manufacturing, supply chain optimisation, and cost-effective technologies. Eg: Indian companies like Inox Air Products ramped up production and collaborated with the government to meet surging oxygen demand.
    • Global Health Agencies: Agencies like WHO and UNICEF must provide technical and financial support for infrastructure and workforce training. Eg: WHO supported several LMICs (e.g., Bhutan) in installing and operating oxygen plants through cross-border cooperation.

    What has been done by the Indian government in Southeast Asia? 

    • Oxygen Supply to Bangladesh: In July 2021, India dispatched 200 metric tonnes of Liquid Medical Oxygen (LMO) to Bangladesh via the ‘Oxygen Express’ train service. This marked the first international deployment of the Oxygen Express, showcasing India’s commitment to assisting neighboring countries in crisis.
    • Medical Aid to Vietnam: In August 2021, the Indian Navy’s INS Airavat delivered 100 metric tonnes of LMO and 300 oxygen concentrators to Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. 

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Local Infrastructure: Governments and partners must invest in decentralised oxygen production, solar-powered systems, and skilled workforce development to ensure reliable access, especially in rural and remote areas.
    • Establish Robust Policies & Partnerships: Create strong regulatory frameworks and foster public-private-global collaborations to improve oxygen quality, supply chain efficiency, and emergency preparedness across regions.

  • NE to be gateway for trade with Southeast Asia: Modi

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister said on Friday that the eight states of India’s Northeast are now leading in development and growth, and he encouraged investors to explore opportunities there.

    What did the Prime Minister describe the Northeast region as, and why?

    • Frontrunner of Growth: PM  described the Northeast as no longer a “frontier region”, but a “frontrunner of growth”. Eg: Hosting of the Rising Northeast Summit to attract investment and highlight regional potential.
    • Gateway to Southeast Asia: This aligns with the idea of Northeast as a growth leader because its strategic location makes it a natural gateway for trade with Southeast Asia. Eg: Projects connecting Northeast with Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam under the Act East Policy.
    • Powerhouse of Energy: It is a frontrunner because it is rich in natural resources, making it a “powerhouse of energy”. Eg: Assam’s tea industry and Arunachal Pradesh’s hydroelectric potential.
    • Cultural and Economic Diversity: The region leads in development because its cultural and economic diversity fosters innovation in tourism, crafts, and trade. Eg: Nagaland’s Hornbill Festival promotes both culture and economic activity.
    • Ashta Lakshmis (Eight Goddesses of Wealth): PM called the eight states “Ashta Lakshmis” because each contributes uniquely to India’s prosperity, reinforcing its status as a growth frontrunner. Eg: Government initiatives like NESIDS aim to unlock each state’s economic strengths.

    Why did the Directorate General of Foreign Trade order the closure of land ports with Bangladesh?. 

    • To Provide a Level Playing Field for the Northeast: Goods entering via Bangladesh were bypassing local supply chains, hurting Northeast producers and manufacturers. Eg: Cheaper Bangladeshi products undercutting Assam’s handicrafts and processed food sectors.
    • To Boost Internal Supply Chains and Manufacturing: Closure of land ports encourages the development of local industries and competitive manufacturing within the Northeast. Eg: Promoting local textile and bamboo industries in Tripura and Mizoram to supply regional demands.
    • Strategic Economic Repositioning: Part of a broader effort to reorient the Northeast as a commercial and trade hub within India and toward Southeast Asia. Eg: Integrating Northeast into projects like India-Myanmar-Thailand trilateral highway for long-term trade advantage.

    Which sectors are identified as key economic strengths of the Northeast region?

    • Bio-economy and Natural Resources: The region is rich in bamboo, tea, and petroleum resources. Eg: Assam is a major hub for tea production; Arunachal Pradesh is emerging in bamboo-based industries.
    • Tourism and Eco-tourism: Scenic landscapes, cultural diversity, and biodiversity promote sustainable tourism. Eg: Meghalaya’s living root bridges and Sikkim’s eco-tourism model attract both domestic and international tourists.
    • Sports and Youth Potential: High sports participation and talent make it a center for sports development and allied industries. Eg: Manipur and Mizoram produce national-level athletes in football, boxing, and weightlifting.

    How is India planning to connect the Northeast with Southeast Asia?

    • Infrastructure Development Projects: India is building roads and highways to enhance cross-border connectivity. Eg: The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway aims to link the Northeast to Southeast Asia by road.
    • Multilateral and Bilateral Linkages: Strategic projects are underway to connect Northeast India with ASEAN countries. Eg: Projects to directly connect Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos to India are in progress.
    • Transforming the Region into a Trade Gateway: The Northeast is being positioned as the “gateway for trade” with Southeast Asia. Eg: Investment in border trade hubs and logistics parks in states like Manipur and Mizoram supports trade facilitation.

    Way forward: 

    • Accelerate Infrastructure & Connectivity Projects: Ensure timely completion of highways, rail links, and trade corridors to integrate the Northeast with ASEAN markets and boost regional trade.
    • Promote Local Industries & Skill Development: Strengthen regional supply chains by supporting local entrepreneurship, MSMEs, and skill training aligned with emerging sectors like eco-tourism, agri-business, and clean energy.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2016] Evaluate the economic and strategic dimensions of India’s Look East Policy in the context of the post-Cold War international scenario.

    Linkage: The “Look East Policy” was the predecessor to the current “Act East” policy. The Act East Policy, which emphasizes the Northeast as a gateway for trade and connectivity with Southeast Asia, is essentially a more action-oriented evolution of the Look East Policy.

  • Trade diplomacy: on India-Bangladesh trade-related tensions

    Why in the News?

    India has taken a sharp turn from its traditionally cooperative trade approach by recently imposing restrictions on Bangladeshi readymade garments and other goods.

    Why did India impose trade restrictions on Bangladesh?

    • Bangladesh move to China: India imposed trade restrictions to express displeasure with Bangladesh’s interim government led by Mohammed Yunus, which has moved closer to China and Pakistan, straining India-Bangladesh relations. Eg: Yunus inviting Chinese access to India’s northeast during his China visit triggered India’s concerns.
    • Political statement against the North East: India blocked access to its Northeast markets for Bangladesh’s key garment exports in response to recent political comments that called Northeast India landlocked and claimed Bangladesh is its gateway to the sea.
    • Signaling Disapproval of Political Moves: India seeks to signal its objection to the interim government’s ban on the Awami League and its deviation from democratic norms promised to the international community.

    What did Yunus say about India’s northeast during his China visit?

    • Described India’s northeast as landlocked: Yunus publicly referred to the northeastern region of India as lacking direct access to the sea, highlighting its geographical constraints. Eg: He emphasized that the region is dependent on access through neighboring countries like Bangladesh.
    • Invited China to access the region via Bangladesh: He suggested that China could use Bangladesh as a transit route to reach India’s northeast, implicitly offering strategic passage. Eg: During his March 2025 China visit, he proposed trade and connectivity links that would allow China to reach the northeast.
    • Undermined India’s regional security concerns: By involving China in a sensitive area, Yunus ignored India’s strategic sensitivities and long-standing opposition to Chinese presence near its borders. Eg: His comments were seen as aligning with China’s Belt and Road ambitions in South Asia, alarming Indian policymakers.

    How could the trade move affect India’s strategic interests?

    • May worsen anti-India sentiment in Bangladesh: The restrictions could be seen as punitive and fuel nationalist or anti-India narratives, especially among radical groups. Eg: Elements opposing India’s influence may use the trade ban to rally public anger and portray India as interfering in domestic affairs.
    • Could destabilize India’s northeast region: Heightened tensions and instability in Bangladesh may spill over, leading to cross-border security issues in India’s sensitive northeastern states. Eg: Increased radical activity or refugee influx due to unrest in Bangladesh can strain local governance and security in Assam and Tripura.
    • Limits diplomatic space for constructive engagement: Economic restrictions reduce India’s leverage to influence political developments in Bangladesh through dialogue and soft diplomacy. Eg: Trade ties often help maintain dialogue even during political tensions — restricting them weakens India’s long-term strategic hold.

    Which key political stakeholders in Bangladesh should India engage?

    • Awami League (AL): Despite being currently banned by the interim government, the Awami League, led by Sheikh Hasina, has been India’s most trusted ally and played a key role in maintaining bilateral stability and counterterrorism cooperation. Eg: India and the Awami League worked closely on cross-border security and infrastructure projects like the Akhaura-Agartala rail link.
    • Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP): As a major opposition party, the BNP represents a significant voter base. India should maintain open lines of communication to understand its stance on regional issues and democratic reforms.
    • Civil society and democratic reform advocates: Engaging with non-party actors such as human rights groups, independent media, and student movements can strengthen India’s image as a supporter of democracy and people-to-people ties.

    Why is the delay in Bangladesh’s elections a significant concern for India?

    • Regional stability and security risks: Prolonged political uncertainty in Bangladesh may lead to unrest, radicalisation, and law and order issues, which can spill over into India’s northeast, impacting border security. Eg: A destabilised Bangladesh could lead to increased cross-border infiltration or refugee inflows into Assam and Tripura.
    • Strained diplomatic and strategic relations: The delay weakens India’s ability to engage with a legitimate and stable government, affecting long-term strategic cooperation, trade, and connectivity projects. Eg: Uncertainty may halt progress on initiatives like the India-Bangladesh power grid or transit routes through Bangladesh.

    Way forward:

    • Engage All Political Stakeholders: India should maintain dialogue with all major political actors in Bangladesh — including the Awami League, BNP, and civil society — to encourage democratic transition and ensure long-term regional stability.
    • Balance Strategic Interests with Economic Diplomacy: India must ease trade restrictions while using diplomatic channels to address security concerns, preventing alienation and preserving influence in Bangladesh and the Northeast region.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2013] The protests in Shahbag Square in Dhaka in Bangladesh reveal a fundamental split in society between the nationalists and Islamic forces. What is its significance for India?

    Linkage: The current trade-related tensions between India and Bangladesh are a result of deteriorating political relations which have spilled over into economic ties.

  • [20th May 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Understanding India’s relationship with Turkey and Azerbaijan

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2013] ‘The expansion and strengthening of NATO and a stronger US-Europe strategic partnership works well in India.’ What is your opinion about this statement? Give reasons and examples to support your answer.

    Linkage: Turkiye is a NATO member, and its foreign policy decisions (like supporting Pakistan or Azerbaijan) are influenced by its position within such alliances, which in turn affects India’s relationships and interests in the region.

     

    Mentor’s Comment: India, Turkey, and Azerbaijan entered into diplomatic tensions after Turkey and Azerbaijan openly supported Pakistan following the Pahalgam massacre. This support sparked a sharp rise in regional political conflicts and strong public reactions. Social media anger quickly escalated, prompting top Indian institutions to pause agreements and causing many travelers to cancel trips to Turkey and Azerbaijan, as reported by travel websites.

    Today’s editorial explains the diplomatic tensions between India, Turkey, and Azerbaijan and their implications. This topic will be included in GS Paper I (Unity in Society) and GS Paper II (International Relations).

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Data shows that even if India officially bans trade with Azerbaijan and Turkey, it is likely to experience minimal losses due to limited economic dependence on these countries.

    What triggered the boycott of Turkiye and Azerbaijan in India?

    • Support for Pakistan: Turkiye and Azerbaijan backed Pakistan following India’s military confrontation after the Pahalgam massacre, which angered many Indians.
    • Social media-driven calls for boycott: The support sparked calls on social media to boycott both countries, leading to a surge in travel cancellations. Eg: Sharp spike in cancellations of tour bookings to Turkiye and Azerbaijan reported by travel platforms.
    • Institutional actions: Indian institutions suspended ties, and trader associations resolved to boycott trade and commercial ties with these countries. Eg: IIT Bombay and IIT Roorkee suspended MoUs with Turkish universities.

    Why do Azerbaijan and Turkey oppose India? 

    • Support for Pakistan in the Kashmir conflict: Historically, Turkiye has aligned with Pakistan on the Kashmir issue, opposing India’s sovereignty over the region. Eg: Turkiye’s consistent diplomatic backing of Pakistan’s claims on Kashmir since the partition of India in 1947.
    • Azerbaijan’s conflict with Armenia: India has historically supplied arms and support to Armenia, Azerbaijan’s adversary in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, creating tensions with Azerbaijan. Eg: India’s provision of surface-to-air missile systems to Armenia, opposing Azerbaijan’s territorial claims.

    How have arms trade relations evolved between Turkiye and Pakistan?

    • Long-term arms exports since the 1990s: Turkiye has been supplying arms to Pakistan continuously for over three decades. Eg: SIPRI data shows arms exports from Turkiye to Pakistan starting in the 1990s.
    • Major focus on artillery systems: A significant part of the trade involves artillery like naval guns, howitzers, self-propelled guns, and multiple rocket launchers. Eg: Pakistan has received multiple rocket launchers and howitzers from Turkiye.
    • Supply of armored vehicles: Turkiye exports tanks, armored cars, and personnel carriers to Pakistan’s military. Eg: Delivery of armored vehicles strengthens Pakistan’s ground forces.
    • Mutual strategic and political support: Arms trade is supported by reciprocal backing in geopolitical issues such as Kashmir and Cyprus. Eg: Turkiye supports Pakistan on Kashmir; Pakistan supports Turkiye on Cyprus disputes.
    • Strengthened ties during regional conflicts: The relationship deepened as Turkiye provided diplomatic and military backing to Pakistan in various geopolitical standoffs. Eg: Turkiye’s vocal support for Pakistan during Kashmir-related tensions.

    Who stands to lose more economically if trade is banned?

    • India’s low dependency on crude oil: The combined share of crude oil imports from these two countries is less than 1% of India’s total crude imports. Eg: Charts show less than 1% crude import share over the past six years.
    • Azerbaijan’s significant reliance on India: India was Azerbaijan’s third largest destination for crude oil exports in 2023. Eg: Azerbaijan could face a bigger impact if India bans trade.

    • Limited trade volume in machinery: Turkiye accounts for only about 1% of India’s total imports in machinery, including nuclear reactors and boilers. Eg: India relies more on countries like China and Germany for such equipment.

    • India’s diversified import sources: India’s major imports come from several other countries, making it less vulnerable to a ban on trade with Turkiye and Azerbaijan. Eg: China and Germany are larger suppliers of machinery than Turkiye.
    • Greater economic impact likely on Azerbaijan: Azerbaijan stands to lose more from India’s trade ban because India is a major crude oil buyer for them. Eg: India being the third largest market for Azerbaijan’s crude oil exports highlights this dependence.

    Where has there been a notable rise in Indian tourism and student migration recently?

    Indian tourism

    • Significant increase in Indian tourists to Turkey: In 2024, about 330,000 Indian tourists visited Turkey, marking a 20.7% increase from the previous year. This growth was due to better air connectivity and Turkey’s appeal as a budget-friendly European destination.
    • Rapid growth of Indian tourists in Azerbaijan: Indian tourist arrivals in Azerbaijan jumped from around 60,700 in 2022 to over 243,000 in 2024, fueled by affordability and rich cultural heritage.

     Student migration

    • Increase in Indian students in Turkey: Indian student numbers in Turkey have grown from less than 100 in 2017 to several hundreds by 2024, attracted by diverse programs and competitive costs.
    • Rising Indian student in Azerbaijan: The number of Indian students in Azerbaijan also increased significantly, supported by institutions like Türkiye-Azerbaijan University established in 2024.

    Note: This 2024 data is from before Operation Sindoor. The real effects on tourism and student migration will be seen later because it takes time for such events to show their impact. 

    Way forward: 

    • Promote diplomatic dialogue: India should engage in sustained diplomatic efforts with Turkiye and Azerbaijan to address mutual concerns and reduce geopolitical tensions.
    • Expand people-to-people and economic ties: Enhancing cultural exchanges, trade, and educational cooperation can build trust and diversify relations beyond political differences.

  • Why Northeast-Kolkata link via Myanmar — not Bangladesh — is significant

    Why in the News?

    Recently, the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) has approved a 166.8-km four-lane highway from Shillong to Silchar. This highway will later be extended to Zorinpui in Mizoram and will link the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project (KMMTTP) with a fast road network running through the center of Northeast India.

    What is the Kaladan project’s role in Northeast India’s connectivity?

    • The Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project (KMMTTP) offers a strategic alternative to the narrow and vulnerable Siliguri Corridor (“Chicken’s Neck”), currently the only land route connecting the Northeast to the rest of India. Eg: Direct Kolkata–Mizoram route via Myanmar.
    • The project significantly shortens the transport distance (by around 1,000 km) and time (3–4 days), facilitating faster movement of goods and people, and promoting trade and investment in the resource-rich but infrastructure-poor Northeast.  

    Why have India-Bangladesh ties worsened recently?

    • Political Shift and Leadership Change: The ousting of pro-India Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina in August 2024 disrupted longstanding bilateral ties. Her party, the Awami League, was subsequently banned by the interim government led by Muhammad Yunus, raising concerns in India about democratic processes and political inclusivity.
    • Strained Diplomatic Exchanges: Interim leader Muhammad Yunus made statements perceived as antagonistic by India, such as referring to Northeast India as “landlocked” and suggesting Bangladesh as the “only guardian of the ocean.” These remarks, especially during his visit to China, were viewed by India as a shift towards a more China-aligned stance, causing diplomatic unease.
    • Trade Restrictions and Economic Tensions: In response to Bangladesh’s interim government’s approach, India imposed restrictions on Bangladeshi exports to its Northeast region.

    Why has the Kaladan project been delayed?

    • Security Concerns: Ongoing civil unrest in Myanmar, especially in Rakhine State, has disrupted construction and posed risks to workers. Eg: In 2024, the Arakan Army seized Paletwa, making the area unsafe for project activities.
    • Incomplete Infrastructure: Critical segments of the project, especially the road link from Paletwa to Zorinpui, remain unfinished. Eg: The 109 km road stretch needed to connect the waterway to the Indian border is still under construction.
    • Operational Hurdles: Difficult terrain, weak contractor coordination, and reliance on local sub-contracting have caused delays. Eg: Despite awarding the contract to IRCON in 2022, progress has been slow due to logistical difficulties.

    How does the new Shillong-Silchar-Zorinpui highway enhance the connectivity of the Kaladan project?

    • Strategic Redundancy: The highway provides an alternative route to the vulnerable Siliguri Corridor, ensuring uninterrupted access to the Northeast. Eg: In response to Bangladesh’s “landlocked” remark, India approved the ₹22,864 crore Shillong–Silchar highway to bypass Bangladesh.
    • Integrated Multi-Modal Link: It seamlessly connects to the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project, facilitating efficient cargo movement between Kolkata and the Northeast. Eg: The Shillong–Silchar highway acts as a continuation of the Kaladan project, linking the Northeast to Kolkata via Myanmar.
    • Economic Development: Enhanced connectivity boosts trade, tourism, and economic activities in the Northeast region. Eg: The new corridor is expected to spur economic development by improving road connectivity and reducing travel time.
    • Reduced Transit Time: The highway shortens travel time between key cities, facilitating faster movement of goods and people. Eg: The 166.8 km highway will cut travel time between Shillong and Silchar from 8.5 hours to 5 hours.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Security and Coordination: Enhance cooperation with Myanmar and local stakeholders to ensure safe and timely completion of the Kaladan project’s remaining sections, addressing security challenges in Rakhine State.
    • Expand Infrastructure Integration: Accelerate development of connecting highways and transport networks in Northeast India to fully leverage the Kaladan corridor for economic growth and strategic resilience.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2013] The protests in Shahbag Square in Dhaka in Bangladesh reveal a fundamental split in society between the nationalists and Islamic forces. What is its significance for India?

    Linkage: The political and social changes happening inside Bangladesh are important for India to understand, because they can affect India’s security and ties with its neighbour. Recently, Bangladesh’s  sentiments (like cut the “Chicken’s Neck” of India) have raised concerns for India, especially around the narrow “Chicken’s Neck” – the only land link between mainland India and the Northeast. That’s why the Kaladan project is very important. It will give the Northeast a direct link to the Bay of Bengal, reducing dependence on Bangladesh.

  • Terror, treaties, and civilisations: Indus through the centuries

    Why in the News?

    On April 22, a terrorist attack in Pahalgam, Kashmir, killed 26 civilians. In response, the Indian government took several diplomatic steps, including suspending the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT).

    Why is the Indus Waters Treaty crucial for India-Pakistan ties?

    • Framework for Water Sharing: The IWT provides a clear, legally binding agreement on how the Indus River and its tributaries are shared, reducing the risk of water conflicts between India and Pakistan. Eg: India controls the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej), while Pakistan manages the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab), helping avoid disputes over water access.
    • Endurance Amid Political Tensions: Despite wars and terrorist attacks (e.g., 2008 Mumbai attacks, 2019 Pulwama attack), the treaty has endured for over six decades, maintaining a vital channel of cooperation between two hostile neighbors. Eg: Even after the 2019 Pulwama terror attack, the treaty remained a key framework for managing shared water resources.
    • Diplomatic Leverage and Stability: The treaty serves as a strategic tool in diplomatic relations, with India occasionally using it as leverage while ensuring continued water flow, preventing escalation into broader conflict. Eg: After the 2023 Pahalgam attack, India announced suspension of some treaty provisions as a diplomatic response.

    How does climate change affect the Indus Basin?

    • Glacial Melt and Water Flow Variability: The Indus Basin depends heavily on glacier-fed rivers, with about 80% of water coming from glacial melt. Climate change accelerates glacier melting, causing short-term floods and long-term water shortages during dry seasons.
    • Rising Water Demand and Scarcity: Growing population and agricultural needs increase pressure on limited water resources, worsening water scarcity in the basin, especially in Pakistan, where water availability has dropped below critical levels. Eg: Irrigation losses in Pakistan exceed 50% in some areas, threatening food security.
    • Impact on Agriculture and Livelihoods: Reduced and unpredictable water flow due to climate change affects crop yields and fisheries, destabilizing rural economies dependent on the Indus Basin.

    How did colonial irrigation projects influence post-independence water disputes?

    • Extensive Canal Systems Built by British: The British developed large canal networks for irrigation, creating shared water infrastructure across regions. Eg: The 1915 Triple Canal Project linked major tributaries, affecting river flows between future India and Pakistan.
    • Altered Natural River Flow: British dams and barrages controlled floods and irrigation but changed river courses, leading to downstream access issues. Eg: Barrages on the Indus and its tributaries shifted water availability patterns.
    • No Formal Water Sharing Post-Partition: At independence, India and Pakistan inherited interconnected irrigation but lacked agreements on water distribution. Eg: This led to conflicts over the use of eastern and western rivers after 1947.
    • Regional Water Imbalances: Colonial irrigation prioritized certain areas, creating uneven water distribution that fueled disputes. Eg: Punjab’s canal systems served both countries but became points of contention.

    What lessons can India draw from other river treaties? (Way forward)

    • Promote Cooperative Water Management: Successful treaties often emphasize joint management and data sharing to build trust and avoid conflicts. Eg: The Mekong River Commission involves multiple countries collaborating on water usage and flood control.
    • Include Climate Change Adaptation: Modern treaties factor in environmental changes and sustainable usage to address future water challenges. Eg: The Nile Basin Initiative incorporates climate resilience strategies for water-sharing among East African nations.
    • Establish Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: Effective treaties have clear, impartial conflict resolution processes to handle disagreements peacefully. Eg: The Danube River Protection Convention includes mechanisms for arbitration and mediation among European countries.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2020] In what way have the science-based technologies triggered off striking changes in agriculture?

    Linkage: Genome editing is a science-based technology that represents a significant advancement capable of triggering changes in agriculture by developing improved crop varieties.