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Subject: Biodiversity

1. Ecology & Ecosystems
2. Indian Biodiversity

  • Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA)

    Why in the News?

    The 20th meeting of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA-20) is currently underway in Rome.

    About Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA)

    • The CGRFA is the only permanent intergovernmental body addressing all components of biodiversity-related to food and agriculture.
    • It was established in 1983 as the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
    • It operates under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
    • It aims to create international consensus on managing biodiversity in food systems and ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from these genetic resources.
    • Membership: 179 countries (including India) and the European Union
    • Focus: Coordinates global efforts on biodiversity affecting agriculture, forestry, livestock, and aquatic species, including pollinators, soil organisms, and other vital species for food production.

    Structure and Mandate

    • Structure:
      • Governed by a biennial session where member countries discuss and make decisions.
      • A bureau, elected by member states, guides the Commission’s work.
      • The CGRFA Secretariat, hosted by FAO, offers technical and logistical support.
    • Mandate:
      • Policy Formulation: Develops global action plans, codes of conduct, and policy instruments for sustainable use and conservation of genetic resources for food and agriculture.
      • Global Assessments: Guides preparation of periodic assessments to monitor the status and trends of genetic resources and biodiversity.
      • Sustainable Use of Biodiversity: Promotes biodiversity use for food security, sustainable agriculture, and climate adaptation.
      • Fair and Equitable Benefit Sharing: Ensures fair distribution of benefits from genetic resources, especially plant materials under international treaties.
    • Achievements:
      • International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA): Adopted in 2001, it recognizes farmers’ contributions to crop diversity and provides a global system for accessing plant genetic materials for breeders, farmers, and scientists.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

    2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

    3. The World Heritage Convention

    Which of the above has / have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • What is Wallace Line?

    Why in the News?

    In the 19th century, English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace observed a sharp shift in biodiversity as he moved from Asia to Australia, leading him to propose the Wallace Line—an imaginary boundary separating species from both regions.

    wallace line

    About the Wallace Line:

    • It is a bio-geographical boundary separating Asia and Australia’s eco-zones.
    • It was identified by Alfred Russel Wallace in 1863 during his explorations.
    • It is an imaginary line running through the Lombok Strait (between Bali and Lombok) and the Makassar Strait (between Borneo and Sulawesi).
    • Distinct evolutionary histories:
      • West of the line (Asia): Tigers, elephants, and orangutans.
      • East of the line (Australia): Kangaroos, marsupials, and cockatoos.
    • A very few species cross the line, particularly birds and mammals.
    • This is a barrier for land species but not marine life.
    • Its formation:
      • Continental drift: Australia separated from Antarctica and moved toward Asia (~35 million years ago). This created a deep-water channel, preventing species migration.
      • Pleistocene Epoch Influence: Lower sea levels exposed land bridges but deep waters maintained the boundary.

    Scientific Relevance:

    • Wallace Line is more of a gradient than a strict boundary.
    • Understanding biogeography helps predict species adaptation to climate change.

    Note: 

    Weber Line more accurately defines the balance point where the influence of Asian and Australian species is nearly equal, whereas the Wallace Line marks a sharper divide.

     

  • ‘Cali Fund’ launched at CBD COP16

    Why in the News?

    A new international biodiversity fund, the ‘Cali Fund’, was launched at the 16th Conference of Parties (COP16) to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Rome.

    What is the Cali Fund?

    • The Cali Fund is an international biodiversity financing mechanism launched on February 25, 2025, at COP16 of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Rome.
    • It collects funds from private companies that utilize Digital Sequence Information (DSI) from nature in their businesses.
    • The fund supports biodiversity conservation, scientific research, and indigenous communities.

    Key Features of the Cali Fund:

    • Funding Source: Businesses using genetic data (DSI) from plants, animals, and microorganisms will contribute financially.
    • Utilization of Funds:
      • 50% allocated to indigenous and local biodiversity projects.
      • Supports scientific research and developing nations’ biodiversity action plans.
    • Global Management: Managed by UNDP and UNEP, with MPTFO handling finances.
    • Alignment with Global Goals: Supports Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) to reverse biodiversity loss by 2030.
    • First-of-Its-Kind: Direct private sector contributions to a global UN biodiversity fund.

    What is Digital Sequence Information (DSI)?

    • DSI refers to genetic data extracted from plants, animals, and microorganisms.
    • Used extensively in industries such as:
      • Pharmaceuticals (medicine development).
      • Cosmetics (natural ingredient research).
      • Agriculture (crop improvement, pest resistance).
      • Biotechnology (genetic engineering, bioinformatics).

    About the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):

    • The CBD, with 196 contracting parties, stands as the most comprehensive international agreement focused on nature conservation and the sustainable use of natural resources.
    • It was opened for signing at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro.
    • The CBD has 3 main objectives:
    1. Conservation of biological diversity (including genetic, species, and habitat diversity).
    2. Sustainable use of biological diversity.
    3. Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
    • It addresses biodiversity at all levels: ecosystems, species, and genetic resources.
    • The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the CBD’s governing body, and it meets biennially to assess progress, set priorities, and develop action plans.
    • The Secretariat of the CBD is located in Montreal, Canada.
    • To further its goals, the CBD includes two binding protocols:
    1. The Cartagena Protocol (2000), which regulates the transboundary movement of living modified organisms (LMOs) and came into force in 2003.
    2. The Nagoya Protocol (2010), which provides a legal framework for the access to genetic resources and the fair sharing of benefits from their use.

    PYQ:

    [2014] With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    (a) It serves as financial mechanism for ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’

    (b) It undertakes scientific research on environmental issues at global level

    (c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate the transfer of technology and funds to underdeveloped countries with specific aim to protect their environment.

    (d) Both A and B

     

  • IPBES Report, 2024

    Why in the News?

    The 11th plenary of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) took place in Namibia to discuss key scientific findings and evidence addressing the global biodiversity crisis.

    About IPBES

    • IPBES aims to improve the interface between science and policy on biodiversity and ecosystem services.
    • Membership: Comprises over 130 member governments.
    • Purpose: Provides scientific assessments to guide governments, the private sector, and civil society in decision-making on biodiversity and ecosystems.
    • Establishment:
      • Formally established in April 2012 when 90 countries signed its founding statement.
      • Originated from a 2010 UN General Assembly resolution urging the UN Environment Programme to convene a meeting for its formation.
    • Structural Mandate:
      • Led by a Plenary (main decision-making body) with representatives from member states.
      • Operates on a consensus principle, meeting annually to decide on work programs, budgets, and reports.
    • Key Functions:
      • Assessments: Develop global and regional assessments on biodiversity themes.
      • Policy Support: Provide tools and methodologies for policymakers.
      • Capacity Building: Enhance knowledge and capabilities among members.
      • Outreach: Ensure effective communication and impact.
    • Notable Achievements:
      • 2019: Released the Global Assessment Report on biodiversity and ecosystem services.
      • 2020: Preliminary report on international cooperation to reduce pandemic risks.
      • 2021: Co-sponsored a biodiversity and climate change workshop report with IPCC.
      • 2022: Awarded the Gulbenkian Prize for Humanity, shared with IPCC.
    • Unique Contributions:
      • Introduced the term “Nature’s Contributions to People” (NCPs) as an alternative to ecosystem services.
      • Compiles knowledge from diverse sources, including scientific literature, indigenous knowledge, and local expertise.

    Key Highlights on the Global Environment:

    • Biodiversity Loss: 1 million species face extinction due to habitat destruction, climate change, and pollution.
    • Climate Change Impact: Global warming is significantly threatening ecosystems and species.
    • Deforestation: Large-scale deforestation disrupts ecosystems and contributes to carbon emissions.
    • Water Scarcity: Freshwater ecosystems are under threat from pollution and over-extraction.
    • Ecosystem Services: Decline in vital services like clean air, water, and food.
    • Global Cooperation: Urgent need for global action to address climate change, biodiversity loss, and sustainable development.
    • Biodiversity and Health: Emphasis on the One Health approach to link human, animal, and environmental health.

    Key Highlights on the Asian Region:

    • Biodiversity: Asia hosts half the world’s biodiversity but faces major threats from habitat loss and climate change.
    • Pollution and Urbanization: Rapid urbanization is increasing pollution, affecting health and the environment.
    • Climate Change: Vulnerable to floods, droughts, and rising sea levels impacting agriculture and settlements.
    • Forest Loss: Deforestation, especially in Indonesia, India, and Malaysia, threatens ecosystems.
    • Marine Biodiversity: Marine life is under pressure from overfishing and pollution.
    • Sustainable Agriculture: Promoting sustainable farming to reduce environmental impact.
    • Protected Areas: Despite progress, conservation management remains a challenge.

    PYQ:

    [2012] The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment describes the following major categories of ecosystem services-provisioning, supporting, regulating, preserving and cultural. Which one of the following is supporting service?

    (a) Production of food and water

    (b) Control of climate and disease

    (c) Nutrient cycling and crop pollination

    (d) Maintenance of diversity

  • Species in News: Western Honey Bees

    Why in the News?

    • Western Honey Bees widely used for boosting pollination has led to unintended ecological consequences.
      • Now they inadvertently carry and transmit Thai Sacbrood Virus to native bee colonies.

    About Western Honey Bees

    • Scientific Name: Apis mellifera
    • Introduced globally for their pollination abilities and honey production. In India, they were introduced in 1983 to enhance honey yield.
    • Widely used in agriculture, particularly for pollination of crops like fruit trees, crops, and vegetables.

    Thai Sacbrood Virus Outbreak

    • The Thai Sacbrood Virus (TSBV) outbreak in China and Vietnam has severely impacted honey bee populations.
      • In 1991-1992, a Thai sacbrood virus outbreak devastated around 90% of Asiatic honey bee colonies in South India and re-emerged in 2021 in Telangana.
    • The virus primarily infects honey bee larvae, leading to their high mortality rates.
    • As a result, the affected regions experienced significant declines in bee colonies, which in turn affected pollination services and honey production.
    • The movement of bee colonies for commercial pollination and honey production has facilitated the spread of the virus.

    About Indian Bees and Their Habitat

    • Indian bees are predominantly Apis cerana indica, a species of Asian honey bee.
    • They are found in a wide range of habitats, including forests, agricultural land, and urban environments.
      • They thrive in areas with abundant flowers and nectar sources.
    • Indian bees are important for pollination, especially for local flora, and contribute to the ecosystem by supporting biodiversity and food production.
    • They face threats from habitat loss, pesticide use, and competition from Western Honey Bees, which may outcompete them for food and nesting sites.

    Significance of Honey Bee: 

    • Pollination and Food Security: Honey bees play a crucial role in pollinating crops, contributing to the production of fruits, vegetables, and nuts, ensuring global food security and agricultural sustainability.
    • Biodiversity Conservation: By facilitating plant reproduction, honey bees support ecosystem health and biodiversity, maintaining the balance of natural habitats and enhancing the resilience of ecosystems.

    PYQ:

    [2023] Which of the following organisms perform waggle dance for others of their kin to indicate the direction and the distance to a source of their food?

    (a) Butterflies

    (b) Dragonflies

    (c) Honeybees

    (d) Wasps

     

  • What is the Artificial Reef Project implemented in Kerala?

    Why in the News?

    20,000 pompano fingerlings were released into the sea off Vizhinjam as part of an artificial reef project aimed at replenishing marine fishery resources and promoting sustainable fishing.

    About the Artificial Reef Project in Kerala:

    Details
    Location • Covers 42 fishing villages in Thiruvananthapuram district, from Pozhiyoor to Varkala.
    Aims and Objectives • Enhance fish resources along Kerala’s coast.
    • Support sustainable fishing and improve fishing community livelihoods.
    Structural Mandate and Implementation Funding:

    • ₹13.02 crore project cost under Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY).
    • ₹302 crore allocated for sustainable fisheries in Kerala.

    Implementation:

    • Implemented by KSCADC (Kerala State Coastal Area Development Corporation).
    • Technical support from CMFRI (Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute).

    Future Expansion Plans:

    • Phase II: Proposed to cover 96 villages in Kollam, Alappuzha, Ernakulam, and Thrissur districts (₹29.76 crore).
    • Phase III: Proposed to cover 96 villages in northern districts (₹25.82 crore).
    Significance • Boosts marine biodiversity.
    • Increases fish stocks and supports breeding environments.
    • Promotes sustainable fishing practices.
    • Enhances livelihoods of local communities.

  • Why ‘protected’ areas are seeing faster biodiversity decline?

    Why in the News?

    According to a recent study conducted by the Natural History Museum (NHM) in London, biodiversity is decreasing more rapidly within key protected areas than outside of them.

    What did the Biodiversity Intactness Index (BII) say?

    • The Biodiversity Intactness Index (BII) is a quantitative measure designed to assess the state of terrestrial biodiversity with its natural baseline, before significant human impact.
    • It decreased by 1.88% points globally between 2000 and 2020, indicating a loss in the average natural biodiversity of regions worldwide.
    • Within the 22% of ‘Critical Biodiversity Areas’ that are protected, biodiversity has declined by 2.1 percentage points, while non-protected areas saw a decline of 1.9 percentage points during the same period.

    Why is the decline happening?

    • Inadequate Ecosystem Protection: Many protected areas focus only on specific species rather than the entire ecosystem, failing to prioritize overall biodiversity intactness.
    • Pre-existing Degradation: Some protected areas may have been already degraded before being designated as protected, limiting their effectiveness in conserving biodiversity.
    • External Threats: Activities such as oil, gas, and mining concessions encroach on protected areas, leading to habitat destruction and further biodiversity loss.
    • Climate Crisis Impact: Increased frequency of extreme weather events, such as droughts and wildfires, has severely affected protected areas, undermining their conservation efforts.

    Steps taken by the Indian Government to conserve biodiversity:

    • Legislative Framework

        • Biological Diversity Act, 2002: Established to conserve biological resources and regulate access to these resources, ensuring equitable sharing of benefits derived from their use.
        • Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972: Facilitates the creation of Protected Areas for wildlife conservation and imposes penalties for illegal hunting.

    • Conservation Policies:

        • Project Tiger: Launched in 1973, this initiative aims to protect tiger populations across designated reserves.
        • Project Elephant: Initiated in 1992, it focuses on the management and protection of wild elephant populations and their habitats.
        • National Biodiversity Mission: A mission mode initiative aimed at documenting and conserving India’s biodiversity.

    • Protected Areas

      • Establishment of a Protected Area Network: This includes National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, and Community Reserves to provide better protection for wildlife and their habitats.
      • Designation of Biosphere Reserves: These reserves are aimed at conserving representative ecosystems.

    What should be done? (Way forward)

    • Ecosystem-Centric Management: Shift focus from individual species to the overall health of ecosystems to ensuring comprehensive protection of habitats and their interdependent species.
    • Strengthened Protection and Regulation: Implement stricter regulations to limit industrial activities (e.g., oil and gas exploration) within and around protected areas, alongside enforcing more robust land-use policies.
    • Community Engagement and Education: Involve local communities in conservation efforts and enhance public awareness about biodiversity’s importance, fostering a collective responsibility for sustainable practices.

  • Species in News: Swallowtail Butterfly

    Why in the News?

    A recent study has found that the overexploitation of medicinal plants, is threatening the survival of swallowtail butterflies in the forest habitats of Assam’s Bodoland Territorial Region.

    About Swallowtail Butterfly

    Details
    Family and Species Family: Papilionidae
    Global species: 573
    Indian species: 77
    Characteristics
    • Large size, brightly colored wings, tail-like extensions on hindwings
    • Strong fliers, diurnal, territorial behavior, feed on nectar
    Distribution Found in tropical and temperate regions of Asia, Africa, Americas
    Habitat in India Found in rainforests, woodlands, cultivated lands, and protected areas like the Western Ghats and Northeast India
    Host Plants Depend on specific plants like Rutaceae, Aristolochiaceae, Lauraceae, and Magnoliaceae families for larval development
    Threats
    • Host plants, especially medicinal plants, are being overexploited in areas like the Bodoland Territorial Region
    • Deforestation, illegal cattle farming, agriculture, tree felling, and pesticide use

    Swallowtail Conservation Action Plan (SCAP)
    Purpose To protect and conserve endangered swallowtail species and prevent their extinction
    Focus Area Focuses on habitat protection, host plant conservation, and population restoration
    Swallowtail-Rich Zones Northeastern India designated as a key zone for swallowtail conservation under SCAP
    Legal Protection 12 swallowtail species in India are under federal protection;
    Some species are listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act.
    Community Role SCAP involves local communities in protecting host plants and preventing activities like illegal cattle grazing

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] Recently, for the first time in our country, which of the following States has declared a particular butterfly as ‘State Butterfly’?

    (a) Arunachal Pradesh

    (b) Himachal Pradesh

    (c) Karnataka

    (d) Maharashtra

  • Dead Coral Skeletons hinder Reef Regeneration

    Why in the News?

    A study conducted at Moorea, French Polynesia, has revealed that the network of dead coral skeletons left behind by bleaching events prevents reefs from regenerating.

    About Corals

    • Corals are marine invertebrates made up of genetically identical organisms called polyps.
    • Polyps have a mutualistic relationship with microscopic algae called zooxanthellae that live within their tissues.
    • Zooxanthellae perform photosynthesis, providing the corals with carbohydrates, while the corals offer compounds needed for photosynthesis.
    • Corals have calcium carbonate skeletons, which help in building the reef structure.
    • Thousands of polyps combine to form coral colonies, which multiply and grow over time.
    • Coral reefs are underwater ecosystems formed by the accumulation of calcium carbonate skeletons from corals.
    • Known as the “rainforests of the seas”, they provide habitat and protection for a wide variety of marine life.
    • Coral reefs are built by both hard and soft corals and grow over time as more corals attach to the reef structure.
    • They are the largest living structures on the planet, vital for marine biodiversity.

    Challenges due to Dead Corals

    • Shelter for Seaweed: Dead coral skeletons create a complex structure that offers protection to macroalgae (seaweed) from herbivores. This allows seaweed to colonize the reef quickly, outcompeting young coral.
    • Impeded Herbivory: The complex landscape of dead corals prevents herbivores, which normally graze on algae, from accessing the macroalgae effectively. This leads to unchecked algae growth.
    • Increased Competition: Macroalgae grow faster and reproduce more frequently than coral, leading to increased competition for space, light, and nutrients, which further inhibits young coral from settling and growing.
    • Annual Coral Reproduction: Coral typically spawns only once a year, while algae reproduce continuously. This gives algae a competitive advantage in newly available spaces left by dead coral skeletons.
    • Altered Ecosystem Balance: The presence of dead coral shifts the balance between herbivores, algae, and coral, making it difficult for the reef to regenerate naturally.

    Conditions for Reef Regeneration

    • Flat Substrate: After events like cyclones, which remove coral but leave behind a flat surface, reefs tend to recover more easily, as young coral can settle and regrow without much competition from macroalgae.
    • Herbivore Activity: Active herbivory is crucial for reef recovery, as herbivores control the growth of macroalgae, allowing space for coral recruits to settle and thrive.
    • Clear Space for Coral Recruits: To regenerate effectively, coral needs open space free from excessive algae. Removing dead coral skeletons might help create these conditions.
    • Frequent Disturbances: Coral reefs are better adapted to recover from frequent but non-lethal disturbances like storms, which scrape off coral and allow for fresh regrowth, compared to bleaching events, which leave the dead coral structure intact.
    • Water Quality and Temperature: Coral recovery depends on optimal water conditions, including the absence of pollutants and suitable temperatures.

    PYQ:

    [2018] Consider the following statements

    1. Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical waters.
    2. More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and Philippines.
    3. Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

  • What is Wallace Line?

    Wallace Line

    Why in the news?

    The Wallace Line, a distinct transition zone between Asia and Australia, has long fascinated researchers due to its unique characteristics.

    What is Wallace Line?

    Details
    What is it?
    • A bio-geographical boundary separating the eco-zones of Asia and Australia.
    • It was identified by British explorer Alfred Russel Wallace in 1863 during his explorations.
    • It is an imaginary line that intersects the Lombok Strait between the Indonesian islands of Bali and Lombok to the south, and extends north through the Makassar Strait between Kalimantan (Borneo) and Sulawesi.
    Unique Features
    • Divides species with distinct evolutionary histories.
    • Asiatic species (tigers, elephants) are found to the west; Australian fauna (kangaroos, marsupials) dominate the east.
    • Despite their geographical proximity, these species evolved separately.
    Impact on Wildlife
    • Birds and mammals are particularly influenced, with few species crossing the line.
    • Flora is less affected, though species like Eucalyptus stay on the Australian side.
    Impact on Marine Species
    • While the Wallace Line is a barrier for terrestrial species, it doesn’t stop marine life. 
    • The area between the Wallace Line and the Sahul Shelf (near Australia) is known as the Coral Triangle, the most biodiverse marine environment on Earth.
    Formation
    • Result of Australia’s drift from Antarctica and subsequent collision with Asia around 35 million years ago.
    • Climate shifts led to cooler, drier Australia and tropical Asia.
    • This collision created a deep-water channel that still acts as a natural barrier for species migration.
    Pleistocene Epoch Influence
    • During the Pleistocene epoch, lower sea levels exposed land bridges.
    • Deep waters between Asia and Australia prevented species migration, maintaining the boundary.

     

    Note: 

    Weber Line more accurately defines the balance point where the influence of Asian and Australian species is nearly equal, whereas the Wallace Line marks a sharper divide.