Delhi has been experiencing severe air pollution for 10 days, leading the Supreme Court to criticize the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) for its poor response.
AboutCommission for Air Quality Management (CAQM):
Details
About
A statutory body for air quality management in the National Capital Region (NCR) and adjoining areas.
Established under the Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR and Adjoining Areas, Act 2021, replacing the Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) (formed in 1998).
It came into effect in 2020 through an ordinance.
Structure:
Chairperson: Senior government official (Secretary or Chief Secretary)
5 ex-officio members from Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh; 3 full-time technical members
3 members from NGOs
Technical support from CPCB, ISRO, and NITI Aayog
Functions
Monitor and coordinate air quality management efforts in NCR and adjoining areas
Research sources of air pollution and propose mitigation strategies
Implement air quality policies with state agencies
Raise public awareness and engage communities in air quality management
Powers
Jurisdiction: Over air quality issues in NCR, including Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
Powers:
Issue binding directions to authorities and individuals
Restrict activities impacting air quality
Investigate and enforce environmental pollution measures
Take strict actions against non-compliance under the CAQM Act, 2021
Initiate complaints and enforce regulations
PYQ:
[2018] How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)?
1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by an executive order of the Government.
2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells and aims to improve the quality of air in the country.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A sub-adult female tiger from Kamakhya Reserve Forest in Assam strayed near Kaziranga National Park and was attacked by locals.
All facts about Kaziranga National Park:
Details
About
• Located in the Golaghat, Sonitpur, Biswanath, and Nagaon districts of Assam, India.
• Spans 430 sq. km. (166 square miles).
• Established as a reserve forest in 1905, declared as a National park in 1974, and a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site in 1985.
• Declared as a Tiger Reserve in 2006.
Geographical Features
• The park is crisscrossed by the Brahmaputra River along with numerous small bodies of water.
• Dominated by tall elephant grass, marshland, and tropical moist broadleaf forests.
• Terrain includes sandbars, beels (flood-formed lakes), and chapories (elevated areas).
Flora and Fauna
Flora: Includes 4 main vegetation types: alluvial inundated grasslands, alluvial savanna woodlands, tropical moist mixed deciduous forests, and tropical semi-evergreen forests.
Fauna: Home to 35 mammalian species(15 threatened), it also includes the world’s largest populations of Indian rhinoceros (2,613), wild water buffalo (1,666), swamp deer (468), elephants (1,940), gaur (1,300), and sambar (58).
• Important bird area with 57 species of birds, including migratory species.
• Rich biodiversity, including significant populations of chital, Indian muntjac, wild boar, and hog deer.
PYQ:
[2013] Consider the following pairs:
National Park River flowing through the Park
1. Corbett National Park : Ganga
2. Kaziranga National Park : Manas
3. Silent Valley National Park : Kaveri
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
Several dead fishare floating on the banks of Ashtamudi Lake in Kerala due to illegal use of‘thotta’ (explosives) and ‘nanchu’ (poisons) for fishing.
About Ashtamudi Lake:
Details
About
• Brackish-water estuarine lake, located in Kerala, covering 5,700 hectares.
• Designated as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention in 2002.
Geographical Features
• Encompasses 8 channels (arms) connecting to the lake, giving it the name “Ashtamudi.” (gateway to the backwaters of Kerala)
• Second largest lake in Kerala (first being the Vembanad Lake), drains into the sea via Neendakara estuary.
• Kallada River is the main water source for the lake.
• Historical significance as a major port city of Quilon, as recorded by Ibn Battuta.
Flora and Fauna
• Mangrove species: Avicennia officinalis, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Sonneratia caseolaris.
• Endangered species: Syzygium travancoricum and Calamus rotang.
• 57 species of avifauna, including 6 migratory species and 51 resident species.
• In 2014, the Clam Governing Council became the first Marine Stewardship Council certified fishery in India for their sustainable clam fishing.
PYQ:
[2018] Which one of the following is an artificial lake?
PYQ Relevance: Q) “The most significant achievement of modern law in India is the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court.” Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws. (UPSC CSE 2022)
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC Mains has recently focused on Environmental Issues (2020) and regional Environmental Challenges (2023).
According to the Emissions Gap Report 2024 from the United Nations Environment Programme, India has seen over 6% more greenhouse gas emissions than the previous year.
Today at the end of COP 29 in Baku (Azerbaijan), India will push for ambitious climate mitigation financing from developed nations. These two examples show that India is at a critical juncture in its environmental and public health journey.
Today’s editorial talks about the challenges around the current environmental health governance in India. This content can be used for ‘Environmental regulations and challenges’.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
At the end of COP 29 in Baku (Azerbaijan), India will push for ambitious climate mitigation financing from developed nations. At the same time, India is at a critical juncture in its environmental and public health journey.
What are the current gaps in India’s environmental health regulations?
Fragmented Regulatory Framework: Current environmental governance is divided among multiple ministries, such as the Ministryof Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) and the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW).
This fragmentation results in a disconnect between environmental monitoring and health impact assessments, leading to ineffective responses to pollution-related health issues.
Outdated Legislation: Many existing laws, such as the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, have not been updated to reflect current environmental challenges.
They do not adequately address modern pollution sources or incorporate contemporary scientific understanding of environmental health risks.
Insufficient Data Collection and Research: There is a lack of reliable, comprehensive data on the health impacts of environmental pollutants.
While organizations like the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) conduct important research, there is no centralized body to synthesize this data into actionable policies. This gap hampers effective regulation and public health interventions.
Inadequate Enforcement Mechanisms: Although laws exist to regulate pollution, enforcement remains weak due to bureaucratic inertia, lack of resources, and sometimes political influence.
Compliance with pollution control measures is often not monitored effectively, allowing violations to persist without consequences.
Exemptions in New Regulations: Recent proposals, such as the Remediation of Contaminated Sites Rules, 2024, have notable exemptions that exclude certain types of contaminated sites from regulation (e.g., radioactive sites, abandoned mines).
This can leave significant areas unaddressed in terms of cleanup and remediation efforts
How would a dedicated environmental health regulatory agency improve public health outcomes?
Integrated Approach: The agency would combine environmental and public health oversight, ensuring that regulations address the interconnectedness of environmental factors and health outcomes.
Enhanced Regulation and Enforcement: It would enforce stricter regulations on pollutants and ensure compliance from industries, reducing harmful exposures to air and water quality issues.
Data Collection and Research: The agency would prioritize systematic data collection on environmental health impacts, leading to better-informed policies and timely interventions for pollution-related health issues.
Public Awareness and Education: By educating the public about environmental health risks, the agency would empower communities to advocate for cleaner environments and healthier living conditions.
What international best practices can India adopt for an effective framework?
Implementation of EHS Guidelines: India can utilize the World Bank Group’s EHS Guidelines, which provide comprehensive standards for managing environmental health risks across various industries.
Framework for Environmental Public Health Functions: India can implement the EEPHF framework developed by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), which outlines responsibilities for health actors and governance structures necessary for effective environmental health management.
Comprehensive Risk Management: Implementing a structured risk management framework similar to that outlined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) would allow India to evaluate multiple contaminants and exposure pathways comprehensively.
Environmental Health Incident Management: India can adopt a coordinated incident management framework like the Australia’s system, which provides mechanisms for responding to environmental health incidents effectively. This includes preparedness measures, effective communication strategies, and collaboration across government sectors to minimize impacts on public health.
Way Forward: To improve environmental health in India, there is a need for an integrated regulatory approach that updates laws, enhances enforcement, engages communities, and ensures comprehensive monitoring of pollutants.
A 12-year study by researchers from the Kalinga Centre for Rainforest Ecology has revealed that the king cobra, previously believed to be a single species, actually comprises four distinct species.
Important facts related to King Cobra:
Details
About
• Scientific Name: Ophiophagus hannah.
• It is the largest Venomous Snake; Reaches up to 18 feet (5.5 meters).
• Venom is Neurotoxic, affecting the nervous system.
Re-categorization
Kalinga Centre for Rainforest Ecology identified the species as:
Species differ by 1-4% genetically, justifying their reclassification.
Habitat and Behavioural Features
• Found in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions ( India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and the Philippines)
• Solitary and territorial, with a diet of snakes, lizards, birds, and rodents.
• Mating occurs annually during monsoon, with females laying up to 40 eggs in nests.
• Raises and spreads its hood when threatened, appearing larger.
• Vital in controlling snake populations and maintaining ecological balance.
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List: Vulnerable.
CITES: Appendix II.
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule II.
PYQ:
[2010] King Cobra is the only snake that makes its own nest. Why does it make its nest?
(a) It is a snake-eater and the nest helps attract other snakes
(b) It is a viviparous snake and needs a nest to give birth to its offspring
(c) It is an oviparous snake and lays its eggs in the nest and guards the nest until they are hatched
(d) It is a large, cold-blooded animal and needs a nest to hibernate in the cold season
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)recorded an average AQI of 494 (Severe plus category) for Delhi where the different scales and methods explain the gap.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)recorded an average AQI of 494 (Severe plus category) for Delhi where the different scales and methods explain the gap.
A study by the Centre for Science and Environment reveals that:
Vehicular emissions are the largest contributor to Delhi’s air pollution, accounting for 51.5% of the city’s pollution;
Neighbouring districts add 34.97 %,
Farm fires contribute 8.19%, and
Dust particles make up 3.7 % of the total air pollution in the city.
What is the AQI Crisis in North India and What is the role of Climatic Conditions?
Northern India, particularly Delhi, is currently facing a severe air quality crisis, characterized by record-breaking Air Quality Index (AQI) levels. The AQI in many areas has exceeded 500, categorizing it as “severe-plus,” which poses significant health risks and limits visibility due to thick smog.
This year, despite a relatively pollution-free October and early November, the second week of November brought a sudden spike in toxic particulate matter, primarily PM2.5.
Weather Patterns: Inversions and stagnant air conditions have contributed to the accumulation of pollutants. The presence of a thick pollution blanket at around 500 meters above ground level has been linked to adverse local impacts when combined with regional emissions from stubble burning and other sources.
External Pollution Sources: The increase in pollution levels due to significant contributions from external sources, including emissions from nearby states like Punjab and Haryana.
What are the challenges in Monitoring AQI?
Inconsistent Data Reporting: There is confusion regarding AQI readings, with some private agencies reporting values exceeding 1,000 while official figures cap at 500. This discrepancy arises from differences in how pollutant concentrations are converted to AQI values based on less stringent national guidelines compared to WHO standards.
Dependence on External Data: India’s reliance on satellite data from NASA for monitoring fires and pollution limits its ability to independently assess air quality. There is a need for more localized monitoring using Indian satellites that can provide continuous coverage.
Lack of Comprehensive Frameworks: Current monitoring systems do not adequately account for regional cooperation or comprehensive frameworks that address transboundary pollution issues effectively. This lack of coordination complicates efforts to manage air quality across state lines.
Why does India need a sustainable and health-centric framework?
Long-Term Strategies: Efforts must go beyond immediate fixes and focus on sustainable practices that consider the interconnectedness of air quality management and climate change adaptation. This includes integrating scientific research into policy-making and resource allocation.
Public Health Prioritization: A health-centric approach should prioritize the well-being of citizens by implementing measures that reduce exposure to harmful pollutants, particularly for vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly.
Multidisciplinary Solutions: Addressing air quality issues necessitates collaboration across various sectors, including transportation, urban planning, and public health. This multidisciplinary approach can foster innovative solutions tailored to local contexts while addressing broader climatic challenges.
Conclusion: Northern India’s AQI crisis highlights the urgent need for sustainable, health-centric air quality management. The government should address the pollution through multidisciplinary solutions aligned with SDG 3 (Good Health) and SDG 13 (Climate Action), ensuring healthier lives and climate-resilient communities for future generations.
Mains PYQ:
Q Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve revised standards? (UPSC IAS/2021)
India has called protectionist policies like the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive, and Deforestation Regulation as “unfair” and “unjust”.
What is CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism)?
CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism) is a proposed policy by the European Union (EU) aimed at addressing carbon leakage, ensuring that imported goods face a similar carbon cost as those produced within the EU.
The mechanism requires companies that export goods to the EU from non-EU countries to purchase carbon certificates, reflecting the carbon emissions involved in the production of these goods.
This is intended to create a level playing field for EU industries that have to meet strict carbon emissions regulations.
How will the CBAM impact India’s key industries and overall trade?
Disruption to Trade: CBAM could significantly affect India’s exports to the EU, especially sectors like iron, steel, aluminum, cement, and fertilizers, which account for a large portion of India’s trade with the EU.
Increased Export Costs: The new requirements under CBAM, such as carbon emission certificates, will likely increase production costs for industries, making them less competitive in the global market.
Risk to Iron and Steel Industry: As iron and steel make up 76.83% of India’s exports affected by CBAM, this sector could face the greatest challenge in terms of compliance and potential cost increases.
Economic Strain on Developing Economies: The additional burden of having to meet emissions standards without corresponding support or time for transition may lead to economic difficulties for India’s industries.
What strategies can India employ to effectively challenge the CBAM?
Coordination with Other Developing Countries: India should align its arguments with other developing economies to present a unified stance, ensuring a coordinated response to the EU-CBAM that reflects shared concerns.
Arguing for Adequate Time for Adaptation: India can argue that developing nations should be given sufficient time to adapt to the CBAM, similar to the EU’s phased climate targets, to avoid disproportionate burden.
Revenue Sharing: India can advocate for the EU to share the revenues generated from CBAM with non-EU countries to support capacity building, technology transfer, and emission reduction initiatives in developing nations.
Equity-Based Accounting (EBA) Proposal: India can push for a more equitable framework for emission reductions, suggesting the adoption of an EBA that takes into account historical contributions to climate change, trade benefits, and the developmental needs of nations.
Highlighting the CBAM’s Discriminatory Nature: India should emphasize that CBAM imposes an unjust transfer of climate responsibilities to developing countries without considering their economic realities or historical emissions.
What role does International cooperation play in addressing the challenges?
Global Coordination on Climate Action: India should work with other developing countries to demand a more inclusive global framework for addressing climate change, ensuring that the impacts of mechanisms like CBAM are shared equitably.
Technology and Knowledge Sharing: International cooperation can facilitate the transfer of green technologies, which would help developing nations meet emissions targets without stifling their economic growth.
Addressing Historical Responsibilities: Cooperation with other nations can strengthen calls for addressing historical emissions and providing the necessary financial resources to developing countries to adapt to climate policies like CBAM.
Leveraging Multilateral Platforms: India can use international platforms such as the UNFCCC and COP discussions to engage with other nations and challenge policies that disproportionately affect developing economies.
Conclusion: India should actively engage with other developing countries and form a coalition to present a unified front against the discriminatory nature of CBAM. This could involve joint lobbying at international forums such as the UNFCCC and COP summits.
Mains PYQ:
Q Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC IAS/2021)
The Indian government has notified Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve in Chhattisgarh as the country’s 56th Tiger Reserve, now recognized as the third-largest tiger reserve in India.
Third: Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve, Chhattisgarh
About the Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve (TR):
Details
Location
• Located across Manendragarh-Chirmiri-Bharatpur, Korea, Surajpur, and Balrampur districts of Chhattisgarh.
• Total area: 2,829.38 sq. km.
• Core area: 2,049.2 sq. km (Guru Ghasidas National Park + Tamor Pingla Wildlife Sanctuary).
• Buffer area: 780.15 sq. km.
Regional Significance
• Contiguous with Sanjay Dubri Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh forming a 4,500 sq. km landscape.
• Connected to Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve (west) and Palamau Tiger Reserve (east).
Biodiversity
• 753 species documented by Zoological Survey of India.
• 230 bird species.
• 55 mammal species, including several threatened species.
Landscape
• Located within the Chota Nagpur Plateau and partly in the Baghelkhand Plateau.
• Features dense forests, streams, and rivers, providing a rich habitat for tigers and diverse fauna.
PYQ:
[2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?
The people of Mayong village in Assam have come together to protect a growing colony of oriental pied hornbills, which they view as symbols of peace and prosperity.
About Oriental-pied Hornbills
Details
Name
Scientific Name: Anthracoceros albirostris Common Names: Sunda Pied Hornbill, Malaysian Pied Hornbill
Size: 600-900 grams, 55-60 cm in length.
Habitat
Found in South and Southeast Asia including India, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
Inhabits tropical moist forests, secondary forests, and mangroves.
Behavioural Features
Diet: Omnivorous, mainly fruits (figs), insects, small reptiles. Role: Seed dispersers, forest regeneration agents. Nesting: Female seals in tree cavity, male feeds her.
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List: Least Concern; CITES: Appendix II (conditional trade permitted). Threats: Habitat loss, poaching, pet trade. Conservation: Protected in reserves, community efforts for habitat preservation.
PYQ:
[2016] In which of the following regions of India, are you most likely to come across the ‘Great Indian Hornbill’ in its natural habitat?
To tackle Delhi’s severe pollution and smog, the Delhi government started implementing GRAP Stage III on November 15, which bans BS-III petrol and BS-IV diesel four-wheelers in the National Capital Region (NCR) to help improve air quality.
What are Bharat Stage Emission Standards?
Bharat Stage (BS) emission standards are regulations established by the Indian government to control the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engines in vehicles.
The first standards were introduced in 1991, with subsequent updates leading to the current BS-VI standard, which came into effect on April 1, 2020. India has progressively aligned its standards with European norms, skipping BS-V altogether due to increasing pollution levels.
What is the difference between BS-IV and BS-VI norms?
Sulphur Content: BS-VI fuel has a significantly lower sulphur content (10 ppm) compared to BS-IV fuel (50 ppm), resulting in reduced harmful emissions.
Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Emissions:
Diesel Vehicles: NOx emissions are limited to 80 mg/km under BS-VI, down from 250 mg/km under BS-IV.
Petrol Vehicles: NOx emissions are reduced from 80 mg/km in BS-IV to 60 mg/km in BS-VI.
Particulate Matter (PM): The permissible PM emissions for diesel vehicles have been reduced from 25 mg/km under BS-IV to 4.5 mg/km under BS-VI. Petrol vehicles are also subject to a new limit of 4.5 mg/km for PM.
Emission Control Technologies: BS-VI introduces advanced technologies such as Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF), which were not part of the BS-IV standards. Additionally, Real Driving Emissions (RDE) testing is implemented to monitor emissions during actual driving conditions.
Why have BS-III petrol and BS-IV diesel four-wheelers been banned in Delhi-NCR?
Higher Emission Levels: BS-III petrol and BS-IV diesel vehicles emit significantly higher levels of pollutants like NOx, PM 2.5, and sulphur oxides compared to BS-VI vehicles. These emissions worsen Delhi-NCR’s already poor air quality, especially during high pollution periods.
Combatting Severe Smog and Pollution: Delhi-NCR experiences severe air quality degradation during winter due to factors like temperature inversion and low wind speeds. Banning older vehicles helps reduce pollution sources and alleviates smog conditions.
Alignment with GRAP Stage III: The Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) Stage III mandates stricter pollution control measures during critical air quality levels, including banning more polluting vehicle categories, to protect public health and comply with environmental standards.
Note: The Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) Stage III has been implemented in Delhi-NCR due to severe air pollution levels, specifically when the Air Quality Index (AQI) exceeds 400.
What did the emission inventory say about Delhi NCR?
Current Challenges: The Delhi NCR region faces severe air quality issues, exacerbated by vehicular emissions, construction dust, and seasonal factors like stubble burning. The emission inventory indicates these pollutants contribute significantly to the city’s chronic smog problem.
Government Response: In response to high pollution levels, the Delhi government has implemented measures such as the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), which includes bans on certain vehicle categories based on their emission standards.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)recorded an average AQI of 494 (Severe plus category) for Delhi where the different scales and methods explain the gap.
A study by the Centre for Science and Environment reveals that:
Vehicular emissions are the largest contributor to Delhi’s air pollution, accounting for 51.5% of the city’s pollution;
Neighbouring districts add 34.97 %,
Farm fires contribute 8.19%, and
Dust particles make up 3.7 % of the total air pollution in the city.
What is the AQI Crisis in North India and What is the role of Climatic Conditions?
Northern India, particularly Delhi, is currently facing a severe air quality crisis, characterized by record-breaking Air Quality Index (AQI) levels. The AQI in many areas has exceeded 500, categorizing it as “severe-plus,” which poses significant health risks and limits visibility due to thick smog.
This year, despite a relatively pollution-free October and early November, the second week of November brought a sudden spike in toxic particulate matter, primarily PM2.5.
Weather Patterns: Inversions and stagnant air conditions have contributed to the accumulation of pollutants. The presence of a thick pollution blanket at around 500 meters above ground level has been linked to adverse local impacts when combined with regional emissions from stubble burning and other sources.
External Pollution Sources: The increase in pollution levels due to significant contributions from external sources, including emissions from nearby states like Punjab and Haryana.
What are the challenges in Monitoring AQI?
Inconsistent Data Reporting: There is confusion regarding AQI readings, with some private agencies reporting values exceeding 1,000 while official figures cap at 500. This discrepancy arises from differences in how pollutant concentrations are converted to AQI values based on less stringent national guidelines compared to WHO standards.
Dependence on External Data: India’s reliance on satellite data from NASA for monitoring fires and pollution limits its ability to independently assess air quality. There is a need for more localized monitoring using Indian satellites that can provide continuous coverage.
Lack of Comprehensive Frameworks: Current monitoring systems do not adequately account for regional cooperation or comprehensive frameworks that address transboundary pollution issues effectively. This lack of coordination complicates efforts to manage air quality across state lines.
Way forward:
Accelerate Transition to Cleaner Vehicles: Promote the adoption of electric and BS-VI vehicles through subsidies, scrappage policies, and robust charging infrastructure to phase out older, polluting vehicles effectively.
Strengthen Air Quality Measures: Enhance monitoring of industrial and vehicular emissions, enforce GRAP actions stringently, and increase public awareness to reduce pollution sources and improve compliance.
Public Health Prioritization: A health-centric approach should prioritize the well-being of citizens by implementing measures that reduce exposure to harmful pollutants, particularly for vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly.
Multidisciplinary Solutions: Addressing air quality issues necessitates collaboration across various sectors, including transportation, urban planning, and public health. This multidisciplinary approach can foster innovative solutions tailored to local contexts while addressing broader climatic challenges.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) initiated by the government of India? (UPSC IAS/2020)
