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Subject: Conservation & Mitigation

1. Conservation Progs.
2. Worldwide initiatives
3. Mitigation Strategies
4. Conventions and Protocols

  • Species in news: King Cobra

    Why in the News?

    A 12-year study by researchers from the Kalinga Centre for Rainforest Ecology has revealed that the king cobra, previously believed to be a single species, actually comprises four distinct species.

    Important facts related to King Cobra:

    Details
    About • Scientific Name: Ophiophagus hannah.
    • It is the largest Venomous Snake; Reaches up to 18 feet (5.5 meters).
    • Venom is Neurotoxic, affecting the nervous system.
    Re-categorization Kalinga Centre for Rainforest Ecology identified the species as:

    1. O. Hannah (Northern),
    2. O. bungarus (Sunda),
    3. O. kaalinga (Western Ghats), and
    4. O. salvatana (Luzon).

    Species differ by 1-4% genetically, justifying their reclassification.
    Habitat and Behavioural Features • Found in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions ( India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and the Philippines)
    • Solitary and territorial, with a diet of snakes, lizards, birds, and rodents.
    • Mating occurs annually during monsoon, with females laying up to 40 eggs in nests.
    • Raises and spreads its hood when threatened, appearing larger.
    • Vital in controlling snake populations and maintaining ecological balance.
    Conservation Status
    • IUCN Red List: Vulnerable.
    • CITES: Appendix II.
    • Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Schedule II.

     

    PYQ:

    [2010] King Cobra is the only snake that makes its own nest. Why does it make its nest?

    (a) It is a snake-eater and the nest helps attract other snakes
    (b) It is a viviparous snake and needs a nest to give birth to its offspring
    (c) It is an oviparous snake and lays its eggs in the nest and guards the nest until they are hatched
    (d) It is a large, cold-blooded animal and needs a nest to hibernate in the cold season

  • Is Delhi’s AQI 500 or 1500?

    Why in the News?

    The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) recorded an average AQI of 494 (Severe plus category) for Delhi where the different scales and methods explain the gap.

    The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) recorded an average AQI of 494 (Severe plus category) for Delhi where the different scales and methods explain the gap.

    A study by the Centre for Science and Environment reveals that:

    • Vehicular emissions are the largest contributor to Delhi’s air pollution, accounting for 51.5% of the city’s pollution;
    • Neighbouring districts add 34.97 %,
    • Farm fires contribute 8.19%, and
    • Dust particles make up 3.7 % of the total air pollution in the city.

    What is the AQI Crisis in North India and What is the role of Climatic Conditions?

    • Northern India, particularly Delhi, is currently facing a severe air quality crisis, characterized by record-breaking Air Quality Index (AQI) levels. The AQI in many areas has exceeded 500, categorizing it as “severe-plus,” which poses significant health risks and limits visibility due to thick smog.
      • This year, despite a relatively pollution-free October and early November, the second week of November brought a sudden spike in toxic particulate matter, primarily PM2.5.
    • Weather Patterns: Inversions and stagnant air conditions have contributed to the accumulation of pollutants. The presence of a thick pollution blanket at around 500 meters above ground level has been linked to adverse local impacts when combined with regional emissions from stubble burning and other sources.
    • External Pollution Sources: The increase in pollution levels due to significant contributions from external sources, including emissions from nearby states like Punjab and Haryana.  

    What are the challenges in Monitoring AQI?

    • Inconsistent Data Reporting: There is confusion regarding AQI readings, with some private agencies reporting values exceeding 1,000 while official figures cap at 500. This discrepancy arises from differences in how pollutant concentrations are converted to AQI values based on less stringent national guidelines compared to WHO standards.
    • Dependence on External Data: India’s reliance on satellite data from NASA for monitoring fires and pollution limits its ability to independently assess air quality. There is a need for more localized monitoring using Indian satellites that can provide continuous coverage.
    • Lack of Comprehensive Frameworks: Current monitoring systems do not adequately account for regional cooperation or comprehensive frameworks that address transboundary pollution issues effectively. This lack of coordination complicates efforts to manage air quality across state lines.

    Why does India need a sustainable and health-centric framework? 

    • Long-Term Strategies: Efforts must go beyond immediate fixes and focus on sustainable practices that consider the interconnectedness of air quality management and climate change adaptation. This includes integrating scientific research into policy-making and resource allocation.
    • Public Health Prioritization: A health-centric approach should prioritize the well-being of citizens by implementing measures that reduce exposure to harmful pollutants, particularly for vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly.
    • Multidisciplinary Solutions: Addressing air quality issues necessitates collaboration across various sectors, including transportation, urban planning, and public health. This multidisciplinary approach can foster innovative solutions tailored to local contexts while addressing broader climatic challenges.

    Conclusion: Northern India’s AQI crisis highlights the urgent need for sustainable, health-centric air quality management. The government should address the pollution through multidisciplinary solutions aligned with SDG 3 (Good Health) and SDG 13 (Climate Action), ensuring healthier lives and climate-resilient communities for future generations.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve revised standards? (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • How India could counter the CBAM?

    Why in the News?

    India has called protectionist policies like the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), Corporate Sustainability Due Diligence Directive, and Deforestation Regulation as  “unfair” and “unjust”.

    What is CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism)?

    • CBAM (Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism) is a proposed policy by the European Union (EU) aimed at addressing carbon leakage, ensuring that imported goods face a similar carbon cost as those produced within the EU.
    • The mechanism requires companies that export goods to the EU from non-EU countries to purchase carbon certificates, reflecting the carbon emissions involved in the production of these goods.
    • This is intended to create a level playing field for EU industries that have to meet strict carbon emissions regulations.

    How will the CBAM impact India’s key industries and overall trade?

    • Disruption to Trade: CBAM could significantly affect India’s exports to the EU, especially sectors like iron, steel, aluminum, cement, and fertilizers, which account for a large portion of India’s trade with the EU.
    • Increased Export Costs: The new requirements under CBAM, such as carbon emission certificates, will likely increase production costs for industries, making them less competitive in the global market.
    • Risk to Iron and Steel Industry: As iron and steel make up 76.83% of India’s exports affected by CBAM, this sector could face the greatest challenge in terms of compliance and potential cost increases.
    • Economic Strain on Developing Economies: The additional burden of having to meet emissions standards without corresponding support or time for transition may lead to economic difficulties for India’s industries.

    What strategies can India employ to effectively challenge the CBAM?

    • Coordination with Other Developing Countries: India should align its arguments with other developing economies to present a unified stance, ensuring a coordinated response to the EU-CBAM that reflects shared concerns.
    • Arguing for Adequate Time for Adaptation: India can argue that developing nations should be given sufficient time to adapt to the CBAM, similar to the EU’s phased climate targets, to avoid disproportionate burden.
    • Revenue Sharing: India can advocate for the EU to share the revenues generated from CBAM with non-EU countries to support capacity building, technology transfer, and emission reduction initiatives in developing nations.
    • Equity-Based Accounting (EBA) Proposal: India can push for a more equitable framework for emission reductions, suggesting the adoption of an EBA that takes into account historical contributions to climate change, trade benefits, and the developmental needs of nations.
    • Highlighting the CBAM’s Discriminatory Nature: India should emphasize that CBAM imposes an unjust transfer of climate responsibilities to developing countries without considering their economic realities or historical emissions.

    What role does International cooperation play in addressing the challenges?

    • Global Coordination on Climate Action: India should work with other developing countries to demand a more inclusive global framework for addressing climate change, ensuring that the impacts of mechanisms like CBAM are shared equitably.
    • Technology and Knowledge Sharing: International cooperation can facilitate the transfer of green technologies, which would help developing nations meet emissions targets without stifling their economic growth.
    • Addressing Historical Responsibilities: Cooperation with other nations can strengthen calls for addressing historical emissions and providing the necessary financial resources to developing countries to adapt to climate policies like CBAM.
    • Leveraging Multilateral Platforms: India can use international platforms such as the UNFCCC and COP discussions to engage with other nations and challenge policies that disproportionately affect developing economies.

    Conclusion: India should actively engage with other developing countries and form a coalition to present a unified front against the discriminatory nature of CBAM. This could involve joint lobbying at international forums such as the UNFCCC and COP summits.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference?  (UPSC IAS/2021)

  • India’s 56th Tiger Reserve notified in Chhatisgarh

    India's 56th Tiger Reserve notified in Chhatisgarh

    Why in the News?

    The Indian government has notified Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve in Chhattisgarh as the country’s 56th Tiger Reserve, now recognized as the third-largest tiger reserve in India.

    Largest Tiger Reserves in India:

    • First: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Andhra Pradesh
    • Second: Manas Tiger Reserve, Assam
    • Third: Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve, Chhattisgarh

    About the Guru Ghasidas-Tamor Pingla Tiger Reserve (TR):

    Details
    Location   • Located across Manendragarh-Chirmiri-Bharatpur, Korea, Surajpur, and Balrampur districts of Chhattisgarh.
    • Total area: 2,829.38 sq. km.
    • Core area: 2,049.2 sq. km (Guru Ghasidas National Park + Tamor Pingla Wildlife Sanctuary).
    • Buffer area: 780.15 sq. km.
    Regional Significance • Contiguous with Sanjay Dubri Tiger Reserve in Madhya Pradesh forming a 4,500 sq. km landscape.
    • Connected to Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve (west) and Palamau Tiger Reserve (east).
    Biodiversity • 753 species documented by Zoological Survey of India.
    • 230 bird species.
    • 55 mammal species, including several threatened species.
    Landscape  • Located within the Chota Nagpur Plateau and partly in the Baghelkhand Plateau.
    • Features dense forests, streams, and rivers, providing a rich habitat for tigers and diverse fauna.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?

    (a) Corbett

    (b) Ranthambore

    (c) Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam

    (d) Sunderbans

     

  • Species in News: Oriental pied Hornbills

    Why in the News?

    The people of Mayong village in Assam have come together to protect a growing colony of oriental pied hornbills, which they view as symbols of peace and prosperity.

    Species in News: Oriental pied Hornbills

    About Oriental-pied Hornbills

    Details
    Name Scientific Name: Anthracoceros albirostris
    Common Names: Sunda Pied Hornbill, Malaysian Pied Hornbill
    Size: 600-900 grams, 55-60 cm in length.
    Habitat Found in South and Southeast Asia including India, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia.

    Inhabits tropical moist forests, secondary forests, and mangroves.
    Behavioural Features Diet: Omnivorous, mainly fruits (figs), insects, small reptiles.
    Role: Seed dispersers, forest regeneration agents.
    Nesting: Female seals in tree cavity, male feeds her.
    Conservation Status IUCN Red List: Least Concern; CITES: Appendix II (conditional trade permitted).
    Threats: Habitat loss, poaching, pet trade.
    Conservation: Protected in reserves, community efforts for habitat preservation.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] In which of the following regions of India, are you most likely to come across the ‘Great Indian Hornbill’ in its natural habitat?

    (a) Sand deserts of northwest India

    (b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir

    (c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat

    (d) Western Ghats

  • Why BS-III petrol and BS-IV diesel four-wheelers have been banned in Delhi

    Why in the News?

    To tackle Delhi’s severe pollution and smog, the Delhi government started implementing GRAP Stage III on November 15, which bans BS-III petrol and BS-IV diesel four-wheelers in the National Capital Region (NCR) to help improve air quality.

    What are Bharat Stage Emission Standards?

    •  Bharat Stage (BS) emission standards are regulations established by the Indian government to control the output of air pollutants from internal combustion engines in vehicles.
    •  The first standards were introduced in 1991, with subsequent updates leading to the current BS-VI standard, which came into effect on April 1, 2020. India has progressively aligned its standards with European norms, skipping BS-V altogether due to increasing pollution levels.

    What is the difference between BS-IV and BS-VI norms?

      • Sulphur Content: BS-VI fuel has a significantly lower sulphur content (10 ppm) compared to BS-IV fuel (50 ppm), resulting in reduced harmful emissions.
    • Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) Emissions:
      • Diesel Vehicles: NOx emissions are limited to 80 mg/km under BS-VI, down from 250 mg/km under BS-IV.
      • Petrol Vehicles: NOx emissions are reduced from 80 mg/km in BS-IV to 60 mg/km in BS-VI.
    • Particulate Matter (PM): The permissible PM emissions for diesel vehicles have been reduced from 25 mg/km under BS-IV to 4.5 mg/km under BS-VI. Petrol vehicles are also subject to a new limit of 4.5 mg/km for PM.
    • Emission Control Technologies: BS-VI introduces advanced technologies such as Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and Diesel Particulate Filters (DPF), which were not part of the BS-IV standards. Additionally, Real Driving Emissions (RDE) testing is implemented to monitor emissions during actual driving conditions.

    Why have BS-III petrol and BS-IV diesel four-wheelers been banned in Delhi-NCR?

    • Higher Emission Levels: BS-III petrol and BS-IV diesel vehicles emit significantly higher levels of pollutants like NOx, PM 2.5, and sulphur oxides compared to BS-VI vehicles. These emissions worsen Delhi-NCR’s already poor air quality, especially during high pollution periods.
    • Combatting Severe Smog and Pollution: Delhi-NCR experiences severe air quality degradation during winter due to factors like temperature inversion and low wind speeds. Banning older vehicles helps reduce pollution sources and alleviates smog conditions.
    • Alignment with GRAP Stage III: The Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) Stage III mandates stricter pollution control measures during critical air quality levels, including banning more polluting vehicle categories, to protect public health and comply with environmental standards.

    Note:  The Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) Stage III has been implemented in Delhi-NCR due to severe air pollution levels, specifically when the Air Quality Index (AQI) exceeds 400.

    What did the emission inventory say about Delhi NCR?

    • Current Challenges: The Delhi NCR region faces severe air quality issues, exacerbated by vehicular emissions, construction dust, and seasonal factors like stubble burning. The emission inventory indicates these pollutants contribute significantly to the city’s chronic smog problem.
    • Government Response: In response to high pollution levels, the Delhi government has implemented measures such as the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), which includes bans on certain vehicle categories based on their emission standards.

     

    The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) recorded an average AQI of 494 (Severe plus category) for Delhi where the different scales and methods explain the gap.

    A study by the Centre for Science and Environment reveals that:

    • Vehicular emissions are the largest contributor to Delhi’s air pollution, accounting for 51.5% of the city’s pollution;
    • Neighbouring districts add 34.97 %,
    • Farm fires contribute 8.19%, and
    • Dust particles make up 3.7 % of the total air pollution in the city.

    What is the AQI Crisis in North India and What is the role of Climatic Conditions?

    • Northern India, particularly Delhi, is currently facing a severe air quality crisis, characterized by record-breaking Air Quality Index (AQI) levels. The AQI in many areas has exceeded 500, categorizing it as “severe-plus,” which poses significant health risks and limits visibility due to thick smog.
      • This year, despite a relatively pollution-free October and early November, the second week of November brought a sudden spike in toxic particulate matter, primarily PM2.5.
    • Weather Patterns: Inversions and stagnant air conditions have contributed to the accumulation of pollutants. The presence of a thick pollution blanket at around 500 meters above ground level has been linked to adverse local impacts when combined with regional emissions from stubble burning and other sources.
    • External Pollution Sources: The increase in pollution levels due to significant contributions from external sources, including emissions from nearby states like Punjab and Haryana.  

    What are the challenges in Monitoring AQI?

    • Inconsistent Data Reporting: There is confusion regarding AQI readings, with some private agencies reporting values exceeding 1,000 while official figures cap at 500. This discrepancy arises from differences in how pollutant concentrations are converted to AQI values based on less stringent national guidelines compared to WHO standards.
    • Dependence on External Data: India’s reliance on satellite data from NASA for monitoring fires and pollution limits its ability to independently assess air quality. There is a need for more localized monitoring using Indian satellites that can provide continuous coverage.
    • Lack of Comprehensive Frameworks: Current monitoring systems do not adequately account for regional cooperation or comprehensive frameworks that address transboundary pollution issues effectively. This lack of coordination complicates efforts to manage air quality across state lines.

    Way forward: 

    • Accelerate Transition to Cleaner Vehicles: Promote the adoption of electric and BS-VI vehicles through subsidies, scrappage policies, and robust charging infrastructure to phase out older, polluting vehicles effectively.
    • Strengthen Air Quality Measures: Enhance monitoring of industrial and vehicular emissions, enforce GRAP actions stringently, and increase public awareness to reduce pollution sources and improve compliance.
    • Public Health Prioritization: A health-centric approach should prioritize the well-being of citizens by implementing measures that reduce exposure to harmful pollutants, particularly for vulnerable populations such as children and the elderly.
    • Multidisciplinary Solutions: Addressing air quality issues necessitates collaboration across various sectors, including transportation, urban planning, and public health. This multidisciplinary approach can foster innovative solutions tailored to local contexts while addressing broader climatic challenges.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) initiated by the government of India? (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • Species in News: Kaalinga

    Species in News: Kaalinga
    PC: The Hindu

    Why in the News?

    The Western Ghats’ king cobra, commonly called ‘Kalinga Sarpa’, will soon be recognized in the scientific community as Ophiophagus kaalinga.

    About Kaalinga (Ophiophagus kaalinga):

    Details
    Geographical Location • Native to the Western Ghats of Karnataka, India, and extends to adjacent regions within the Western Ghats.
    • Prefers dense tropical forests and hilly terrains.
    Physical Features • Can grow up to 10-12 feet.

    • Carnivorous, feeding on snakes, small mammals, and lizards.

    • Potent neurotoxic venom capable of killing several humans or an elephant in a single bite.
    Uniqueness • Known for territorial behaviour and intelligence.
    • Females build and fiercely guard nests (4 ft x 3 ft) with 23-43 eggs per clutch.
    Conservation Status • At risk due to habitat fragmentation, human-animal conflict, and the absence of specific anti-venom.

    IUCN Status: Vulnerable

    WPA, 1972: Schedule II (accorded protection but with lesser restrictions compared to Schedule I)

     

    PYQ:

    [2010] King Cobra is the only snake that makes its own nest. Why does it make its nest?

    (a) It is a snake-eater and the nest helps attract other snakes
    (b) It is a viviparous snake and needs a nest to give birth to its offspring
    (c) It is an oviparous snake and lays its eggs in the nest and guards the nest until they are hatched
    (d) It is a large, cold-blooded animal and needs a nest to hibernate in the cold season

  • ADB increases Climate Finance backed by US, Japan Pledge

    Why in the News?

    The Asian Development Bank (ADB) will boost climate-related lending by up to $7.2 billion following an agreement by the United States and Japan to provide risk guarantees for some existing loans.

    • This marks the first-ever use of sovereign guarantees for climate finance.

    ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK
    About ADB was founded in 1966 following the Conference on Asian Economic Cooperation organized by the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East.

    • Headquarters: Located in Manila, Philippines.
    • Status: Official UN Observer.
    Aims and Objectives
    • Reducing poverty in Asia and the Pacific region.
    • Provide Program Assistance that provides loans (hard/soft), technical assistance, and grants.
    • Enhances effectiveness through policy dialogues, advisory services, and co-financing to mobilize additional financial resources.
    Goals and Targets
    • ADB raises funds primarily through bond issues on global capital markets.
    • The ADB has set a climate finance target of $100 billion from 2019 to 2030. The U.S. will guarantee $1 billion of existing ADB loans, while Japan will underwrite $600 million.

    Advantages of the Guarantee Structure:

    • Expands ADB’s lending capacity.
    • Lending space will be used over 5 years, while the guarantees will last for 25 years.
    • Example: A sustainable aviation fuel initiative in Pakistan using cooking oil, with ADB covering about half of the $90 million cost.
    Membership
    • Total Members: 67 countries, with 48 from Asia and the Pacific.
    • Membership Eligibility: Includes members of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) and non-regional developed countries.
    • Major Shareholders: Japan and the United States (Each hold 15.607% of shares), China ( 6.444%), India (6.331%), Australia (5.786%).

  • Green Transition that India needs

    Why in the News?

    With Donald Trump’s win in the U.S. and ongoing conflicts in West Asia, India faces a significant challenge at COP29: it must reduce carbon emissions fairly, sustain economic growth, and attract climate funding for essential investments.

    Primary Challenges Facing India’s Renewable Energy Transition

    • Policy Instability: Frequent changes in policies create uncertainty for investors, hindering long-term planning and investment in renewable energy projects.
    • Financial Constraints: India requires substantial investment—estimated at about $10 trillion by 2070—for its energy transition, yet access to affordable financing remains a significant barrier.
    • Infrastructure Limitations: The existing energy infrastructure is often inadequate to support the rapid deployment of renewable technologies, particularly in rural areas where access to clean energy is limited.
    • Dependence on Fossil Fuels: Coal remains a dominant source of energy, accounting for approximately 73% of total power generation. This reliance complicates the shift towards renewables.
    • Geographical Disparities: There are uneven resources and infrastructure across regions, affecting the adoption and efficiency of renewable technologies.
    • Environmental and Social Concerns: Rapid expansion of renewable energy can lead to land use conflicts, impacting agriculture and local ecosystems. Additionally, there are concerns about job losses in traditional energy sectors during the transition.

    How India Can Secure Financing for Its Green Transition?

    • International Collaboration: Engaging with global partners through initiatives like the International Solar Alliance can attract foreign investments and technology transfers.
    • Innovative Financing Models: Implementing operational expenditure (opex) models rather than capital expenditure (capex) can lower upfront costs for consumers. For example, community solar projects can allow shared ownership and reduce individual financial burdens.
    • Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Encouraging collaborations between government entities and private investors can mobilize resources for large-scale renewable projects while sharing risks.
    • Targeted Subsidies: Redirecting subsidies from fossil fuels to clean energy technologies can create a more favorable financial environment for renewable investments. This includes enhancing support for green technologies through tax incentives and grants.

    Strategies That Can Be Implemented (Way Forward)

    • Decentralized Energy Systems: Promoting distributed renewable energy sources (like rooftop solar) can empower local communities and reduce dependence on centralized power systems. Innovative business models such as community solar can enhance accessibility.
    • Digital Integration: Leveraging digital technologies to manage energy distribution more efficiently can optimize resource use and enhance system resilience. Investments in smart meters and AI-driven energy management systems are essential.
    • Circular Economy Initiatives: Developing a circular economy framework for managing waste from renewable technologies can improve resource efficiency and reduce environmental impacts. This includes recycling materials from solar panels and batteries.
    • Focus on Supply Chains: Positioning India within global clean energy supply chains rather than adopting protectionist policies can enhance competitiveness and attract investments. Collaborating with other countries on technology development is crucial.
    • Public Awareness Campaigns: Educating consumers about the benefits of renewable technologies and encouraging adoption through financial incentives can drive demand for green solutions

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997. (UPSC IAS/2022)

  • Savannah Elephant populations fell by about 70% on average

    Savannah Elephant populations fell by about 70% on average

    Why in the News?

    Savanna elephants have experienced a significant population decline of around 70% across surveyed sites, primarily due to poaching and habitat loss.

    Decline in African Elephants Population

    • Researchers conducted a comprehensive assessment of these species using data from 475 sites in 37 countries between 1964 and 2016.
    1. Savanna Elephants: Populations declined by about 70% on average at surveyed sites.
    2. Forest Elephants: Populations fell by about 90% on average at surveyed sites.
    • The total population of African elephants decreased by 77% on average at surveyed sites.

    Features of African Elephants:

    • African elephants are the largest land animals on Earth, known for their size, intelligence, and complex social structures.
    • They are divided into savanna (bush) elephants (larger, with bigger tusks and open grassland habitat) and forest elephants (smaller, with straighter tusks and dense forest habitats).
    • Highly intelligent, African elephants display memory, empathy, and intricate social bonds within herds.
    • Conservation status:
      • CITES: Appendix I
      • IUCN: Savanna Elephants (Endangered); Forest Elephants (Critically Endangered)

    Geographical Spread

    • Savanna Elephants: Primarily in eastern and southern Africa, notably in Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Tanzania.
    • Forest Elephants: Mainly in central and western Africa, including Gabon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and parts of Cameroon.

    PYQ:

    [2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:

    1. The leader of an elephant group is a female.

    2. The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.

    3. An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.

    4. Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 4 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 3 and 4 only