Shellfish aquaculture using Geukensia demissa is emerging as a viable solution for mitigating excess nutrients and contaminants in coastal and estuarine waters.
About Geukensia demissa
Geukensia demissa is a species of mussel commonly known as the ribbed mussel or Atlantic ribbed mussel.
It is native to the Atlantic coast of North America, ranging from Nova Scotia in Canada to the Gulf of Mexico.
They inhabit intertidal and shallow subtidal areas, typically found in estuaries, salt marshes, and tidal flats.
They prefer areas with muddy or sandy substrates where they can burrow and anchor themselves.
Ecological Importance
Ribbed mussels play a vital role in estuarine ecosystems.
Water Filtration: They filter large volumes of water, helping to improve water quality by removing suspended particles and excess nutrients.
Key species of Food Chain: Additionally, their presence provides habitat and food for various other organisms, including small invertebrates and fish.
Organisms Filter: These mussels thrive in diverse habitats and possess the ability to filter bacteria, microalgae, and detritus laden with nutrients and contaminants.
Geukensia demissa:Experimental Deployment and Results
To assess the efficacy of G. demissa in purifying urban waters, a raft stocked with local ribbed mussels was deployed in an estuary near New York City.
Subsequent analysis revealed that the mussels exhibited robust health and accumulated significant amounts of local nitrogen isotopes, indicative of nitrogen removal from the water.
Based on the findings, it is estimated that a fully stocked raft could purify an average of 11,356 m3 of water daily and remove approximately 159 kg of particulate matter on a daily basis.
Moreover, upon harvesting, the mussels sequestered 62.6 kg of nitrogen in their tissues and shells, further enhancing the water quality.
PYQ:
[2011] Recently, “oil-zapper” was in the news. What is it?
(a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the remediation of oily sludge and oil spills
(b) It is the latest technology developed for under-sea oil exploration
(c) It is a genetically engineered high biofuel-yielding maize variety
(d) It is the latest technology to control the accidentally caused flames from oil wells
Presently, Croatia has imposed stricter penalties for acts of cruelty, especially the abandonment of domestic pets. Countries across the world are reforming their animal cruelty laws and enhancing punishments for animal cruelty.
On punishment theories:
Inadequacies in the PCA Act (1960): The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (PCA Act) is the primary legislation criminalizing various forms of cruelty towards animals in India.
Failure to Achieve Objectives: Despite being in place for several decades, the PCA Act has failed to achieve its main objective of preventing cruelty to animals effectively.
Theories of punishment suggest that punishment serves three main goals:
Retribution: Retribution refers to punishment imposed to avenge the crime committed.In the context of animal cruelty, retribution could involve imposing punishment on perpetrators to seek justice for the harm inflicted on animals.
Deterrence: It aims to prevent future crimes by imposing punishment that dissuades both the perpetrator and the general public from engaging in similar behavior.
Reformation or Rehabilitation: It focuses on reforming the behavior of the perpetrator to prevent future offenses.
Issues in PCA 1960 :
Bail and Non-Cognisable Offences: Many offences under the PCA Act are bailable and non-cognisable, allowing accused individuals to seek bail easily and preventing immediate police action without court permission. This delays justice and hampers effective enforcement.
Inadequate Fines: The fines prescribed under the PCA Act have remained unchanged for over 130 years, rendering them insignificant and failing to act as a deterrent against animal cruelty. In many cases, fines are as low as ₹10, which does not reflect the seriousness of the offenses.
Discretionary Sentencing: The law grants courts discretion to choose between imposing imprisonment or a fine on offenders, even for severe cases of animal cruelty. This leniency allows perpetrators to evade appropriate punishment, undermining the deterrent effect of the law.
Lack of Rehabilitation Measures: The PCA Act lacks provisions for alternative forms of punishment such as community service, which could help reform perpetrators and address the root causes of animal cruelty.
Steps taken by Government:
In November 2022, the Draft PCA (Amendment) Bill, 2022 was published by the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying for public comments. Despite widespread public support for the Draft Bill, it was not tabled in Parliament.
The Draft Bill includes significant amendments to the 1960 Act such as the inclusion of the five fundamental freedoms for animals, enhancement of the punishments and the amounts of money to be paid as fines for various offences, and addition of new cognisable offences.
Way forward
Legislative Reforms: Need to table the Draft PCA (Amendment) Bill, 2022 in Parliament for consideration and enactment.Enhance penalties and fines for animal cruelty to reflect the seriousness of the offenses and act as a deterrent.
Promotion of Public Awareness: Launch campaigns and awareness programs to educate the public about animal welfare and the consequences of cruelty.
Mains PYQ
Q Discuss the significance of the lion and bull figures in Indian mythology, art and architecture. (UPSC IAS/2022)
SC ordered MoEFCC to upload State Expert Committee reports on unclassed forests due to concerns over the Forest (Conservation) Act Amendment 2023 constitutionality, impacting protection and potential diversion of these forests.
What are unclassed forests?
Unclassed forests, also known as deemed forests, are forest areas that may belong to various entities such as government bodies (forests, revenue departments, railways), communities, or private owners. However, these forest areas have not been officially notified as forests.
The State Expert Committees (SECs) were tasked with identifying all such unclassed forests across the country (referring to Forest Working Plans and Land Revenue Records).
Additionally, SECs were required to physically identify any land patches that exhibit characteristics of forests, as per the dictionary meaning of forests, irrespective of their ownership status.
What are the present issues?
The missing forests in SECs
Undermined the previous judgment: MoEFCC informed a Parliamentary Committee that SECs had identified unclassed forests, aligning with the proposed Forest (Conservation) Act Amendment, despite earlier criticism that the law undermined the Godavarman judgment.
However, an RTI application revealed that MoEFCC claimed not to have the SEC reports, raising questions about its assurance to the Parliamentary Committee.
Lack of verified data: Following a Supreme Court order, MoEFCC uploaded the SEC reports, but they showed a lack of verifiable data on the identification, status, and location of unclassed forests.
States not constituted SECs: Seven states and Union Territories, including Goa, Haryana, and Tamil Nadu, hadn’t constituted SECs, while others hadn’t fully complied with Supreme Court directives.
Non-traceable Forest: Ladakh formed an SEC only after the dissolution of Jammu & Kashmir, and Puducherry’s report was declared “not traceable”, further highlighting inconsistencies in the process.
Disagreement with FSI data
Insufficient timeline: Many states argue that the one-month timeline provided by the Supreme Court was insufficient for comprehensive work due to the voluminous nature of the task.
Relied on Existing data: Instead of conducting ground-truthing, physical cadastral surveys, and demarcation of unclassed forest lands, most states relied on existing data from forest and revenue departments. Some states, like Manipur and Sikkim, simply quoted figures from the Forest Survey of India (FSI).
Question on Data: The reliability of data is questioned, with Haryana’s report lacking clarity on data sources and creation dates. Only nine states provided the extent of unclassed forests, while others focused on different types of forest areas specified in the order.
Lack of clarity in the Reports:
Failed to specify the geographic locations: Most states and UTs failed to specify the geographic locations of forests in their SEC reports, rendering the information provided largely unhelpful for accurate identification and protection.
But Tripura was an exception, providing Khaitan numbers for forest areas beyond those officially recorded, but the classification of land remained unclear.
Lack of on-ground verification: SEC is lagging that on-ground verification may have led to the widespread destruction of forests that should have been identified and protected nearly three decades ago.
Instances like Kerala’s SEC excluding ecologically significant areas like Pallivasal unreserve and Chinnakanal unreserve, critical for wildlife corridors and conservation, showcase the lack of diligence in identifying and protecting vital forest areas.
Suggested Measures:
Extended Timeline: Provide states with a more realistic timeline to conduct comprehensive surveys and data verification, considering the voluminous nature of the task and the need for accuracy.
Ground Truthing and Surveys: Mandate states to conduct ground-truthing, physical cadastral surveys, and demarcation of unclassed forest lands to ensure accurate identification and mapping of forest areas.
Data Verification: Implement mechanisms for verifying and cross-referencing data obtained from various sources, such as forest and revenue departments and the Forest Survey of India, to ensure reliability and consistency.
Main PYQ:
Q Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on climate change.(UPSC IAS/2020)
Scientists found out that the huge Ross Ice Shelf, almost as big as France, moves forward a few centimetres daily.
This happens because of the Whillans Ice Stream, a fast-moving river of ice that sometimes gets stuck and then suddenly moves forward.
About Ross Ice Shelf
Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica roughly the size of France.
It was discovered by Sir James Clark Ross on 28 January 1841.
The shelf spans an area of roughly 500,809 square kilometers, about the size of France or the Yukon Territory in Canada.
It is several hundred meters thick. In the shelf’s southern reaches, nearest the True South Pole, the ice can be as thick as 750m.
The nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than 600 km long, and between 15 and 50 meters high above the water surface. However, 90% of the floating ice is below the water surface.
It is fed primarily by giant glaciers, or ice streams, that transport ice down to it from the high polar ice sheet of East and West Antarctica.
Most of Ross Ice Shelf is in the Ross Dependency claimed by New Zealand.
It floats in, and covers, a large southern portion of the Ross Sea and the entire Roosevelt Island located in the east of the Ross Sea.
Spotlight: Icequakes on Ross Ice Shelf
Influence of Ice Stream: Most glaciers move slowly, but the Whillans Ice Stream stops and starts suddenly. This might happen because there isn’t enough water below to help it move smoothly.
Sudden Movements: These sudden movements, like tiny earthquakes, push against the Ross Ice Shelf.
Threat to Stability: Even though these daily shifts aren’t caused by humans, they could make the Ross Ice Shelf weaker over time. Ice shelves slow down the flow of ice into the ocean.
Retreat of Glacier: If the Ross Ice Shelf gets weaker or breaks, it could speed up melting and raise sea levels.
PYQ:
[2013] On the planet earth, most of the freshwater exists as ice caps and glaciers. Out of the remaining freshwater, the largest proportion
(a) Is found in the atmosphere as moisture and clouds
Settlement of claims for local communities within Pulicat Wetland and Birds Sanctuary boundary raises concerns.
State government plans to denotify a significant portion of the sanctuary and Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) for industrial park development.
About Pulicat Wetland and Birds Sanctuary
Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary is the second-largest bird sanctuary in India.
It cuts across Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh and Thiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu.
The sanctuary is situated along the coast of the Bay of Bengal covering an area of 759 square kilometers.
The sanctuary is bordered by the Arani River at its southern tip, the Kalangi River from the Northwest, and the Swarnamukhi River at the northern end.
Pulicat Lake runs parallel to the Bay of Bengal and has a sand bar, making it a lagoon of its own kind.
Sriharikota, renowned as India’s rocket launch pad and home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, separates the lake from the Bay of Bengal.
The sanctuary includes 16 island villages and 30 villages adjoining the lake, whose inhabitants depend on the lake for their livelihood.
Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary hosts a large number of migratory birds during winter, including gulls, terns, plovers, shanks, curlews, and storks.
It is a habitat for a variety of bird species such as flamingos, pelicans, storks, herons, and ducks.
What are the Eco-sensitive Zones (ESZs)?
Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) or Ecologically Fragile Areas (EFAs) are areas notified by the MoEFCC around Protected Areas, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
The purpose of declaring ESZs is to create some kind of “shock absorbers” to the protected areas by regulating and managing the activities around such areas.
They also act as a transition zone from areas of high protection to areas involving lesser protection.
How are they demarcated?
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 does NOT mention the word “Eco-Sensitive Zones”.
However, Section 3(2)(v) of the Act, says that Central Government can restrict areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries, operations or processes shall be carried out or shall not, subject to certain safeguards.
Besides Rule 5(1) of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 states that central government can prohibit or restrict the location of industries and carrying on certain operations or processes on the basis of certain considerations.
The same criteria have been used by the government to declare No Development Zones (NDZs).
Defining its boundaries
An ESZ could go up to 10 kilometres around a protected area as provided in the Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2002.
Moreover, in the case where sensitive corridors, connectivity and ecologically important patches, crucial for landscape linkage, are beyond 10 km width, these should be included in the ESZs.
Further, even in the context of a particular Protected Area, the distribution of an area of ESZ and the extent of regulation may not be uniform all around and it could be of variable width and extent.
PYQ:
[2017] Consider the following statements:
1. In India, the Himalayas are spread over five States only.
2. Western Ghats are spread over five States only.
3. Pulicat Lake is spread over two States only.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
The fourth session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC-4) is happening in Ottawa, Canada.
The goal is to finalize a global agreement on plastic pollution by November this year.
Whatis the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC)?
INC is a committee that aims to develop alegally binding international instrumentto end plastic pollution by 2025, as mandated by United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA) Resolution 5/14.
It began working in November 2022 at Punta del Este, Uruguay (INC-1).
The second meeting (INC-2) took place in May-June, 2023 at Paris, France.
INC is scheduled to complete its work by the end of 2024.
Key Points from INC-4:
Previous meetings (INC-1, INC-2, INC-3) paved the way for this one.
They’re focusing on cutting out unnecessary plastic use while still using it for important things like renewable energy.
Future Prospects:
INC-5 will happen in Busan, South Korea, and it’s meant to finalize everything.
After that, leaders from different countries will sign the agreement.
PYQ:
[2014] With reference to ‘Global Environment Facility’, which of the following statements is/are correct?
(a) It serves as financial mechanism for ‘Convention on Biological Diversity’ and ‘United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’
(b) It undertakes scientific research on environmental issues at global level
(c) It is an agency under OECD to facilitate the transfer of technology and funds to underdeveloped countries with specific aim to protect their environment.
When the Indian government launched the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) in 2019, it’s target was to cut the concentration of atmospheric Particulate Matter (PM) by 20-30% by 2024, from 2017 levels. This was later revised to 40% by 2026.
What is the NCAP?
The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) was launched in India in January 2019 by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC)
The NCAP aims to achieve reductions in PM10 levels through various measures.
What is PM10?
PM 10, also known as particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10 micrometers.
PM 10 particles can irritate the eyes, nose, and throat, and prolonged exposure to high levels of PM 10 can lead to serious health problems, including respiratory issues, cardiovascular disease, and even premature death.
Key features of NCAP (Note: asked in UPSC 2020 mains)
Target: Achieving 20% to 30% reduction target in Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5) concentrations by 2024, where 2017 is kept as the base year for the comparison of concentration. But it has been revised to 40% by 2026.
Cities based on air quality:Identification of 122 non-attainment cities across the country based on the 2014-2018 Air Quality data.
City specific plans: Preparation of city-specific action plans, including measures to strengthen the monitoring network, reduce vehicular/industrial emissions, and increase public awareness.
Coordination between centre, state and local: Facilitating collaborative, multi-scale, and cross-sectoral coordination between the relevant central ministries, state governments, and local bodies.
Right mix with exixting policies: Establishing a right mix with the existing policies and programs, including the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) and other government initiatives related to climate change.
Changes as per additional scientific information: Constant change, activity, and progress to get evolved based on the additional scientific and technical information as they emerge.
Monitoring station: Increasing the number of monitoring stations in the country, including rural monitoring stations, technology support, and data analysis.
Awareness and capicity building: Emphasis on awareness and capacity building initiatives, including public awareness campaigns, training programs, and research and development activities.
Challenges related to NCAP
Lack of fund Utilization: On average, only 60% of the allocated funds have been utilized so far, with 27% of cities spending less than 30% of their designated budgets. Notably, Visakhapatnam and Bengaluru have spent 0% and 1% of their NCAP funds, respectively.
Implementation Delays: Delays in implementing CAAPs are attributed to various factors, including bureaucratic hurdles such as delays in approvals from competent authorities and the absence of standard operating procedures.
Technical Challenges: Technical challenges, such as defining technical specifications for tendering processes and procuring necessary equipment like mechanical sweepers and electric buses, contribute to implementation delays.
How scientific tool can help?
Emissions Inventory (EI): EIs provide crucial insights into local pollution sources and their contributions, aiding in forecasting future emissions and shaping targeted pollution control strategies.
Source Apportionment (SA) Studies: SA studies offer detailed analyses of contributions from various pollution sources, including distant ones.
Role of Air Quality (AQ) Modelling: AQ modelling helps in understanding pollution dispersion, including from distant sources.
Role of EI, SA and AQ: Combining EI, SA studies, and AQ modelling allows for a comprehensive understanding of pollution sources, their contributions, and dispersion patterns.
Conclusion:
Implement stricter monitoring mechanisms to ensure timely and efficient fund utilization. Regular audits and reviews can help identify underutilization and take corrective actions promptly.
Mains PYQ
Q What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) initiated by the government of India? (UPSC IAS/2020)
After the launch of the Nilgiri Tahr Conservation Project, the Tamil Nadu government gears up to assess the population of Nilgiri Tahr (state animal).
The Forest Departments of Tamil Nadu and Kerala will collaborate in a synchronized way.
Nilgiri Tahr Conservation Project (2022 to 2027):
Under The Nilgiri Tahr project, the Tamil Nadu government plans to develop a better understanding of the Nilgiri Tahr population through-
Surveys and radio telemetry studies;
Reintroduce the Tahrs to their historical habitat;
Address proximate threats; and
Increase public awareness of the species.
October 7 will be celebrated as ‘Niligiri Tahr Day’ in honour of E.R.C. Davidar, who was responsible for pioneering one of the first studies of the species in 1975.
Historic significance of Nilgiri Tahr:
Evidence in Tamil Sangam literature dating back to 2,000 years.
The late Mesolithic (10,000-4,000 BC) paintings highlight the significance of the Tahr in folklore, culture, and life.
About Nilgiri Tahr
It is endemic to the Nilgiri Hills and the southern portion of the Western Ghats in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in Southern India.
It is the state animal of Tamil Nadu.
The Nilgiri tahr inhabits the open montane grassland habitat of the South Western Ghats montane rain forests eco-region.
At elevations from 1,200 to 2,600 metres (3,900 to 8,500 ft), the forests open into grasslands interspersed with pockets of stunted forests, locally known as sholas.
It is estimated that there are 3,122 Nilgiri Tahrs in the wild. It has become locally extinct in around 14% of its traditional shola forest-grassland habitat.
Conservation Status:
IUCN Conservation Status: Endangered
Wildlife (Protection) Act of India, 1972: Schedule I
Eravikulam National Park in Anamalai hills of Kerala is home to the largest population of this Tahr.
October 7 is celebrated as ‘Nilgiri Tahr Day’ to honour E.R.C. Davidar, the man who was responsible for conducting first studies of the species in 1975.
Q) ‘Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics. (UPSC IAS/2022)
Q) ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC 2017)
Prelims
With reference to ‘Global Climate Change Alliance’, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2017) 1. It is an initiative of the European Union. 2. It provides technical and financial support to targeted developing countries to integrate climate change into their development policies and budgets. 3. It is coordinated by World Resources Institute (WRI) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD).Select the correct answer using the codes given below: a) 1 and 2 only b) 3 only c) 2 and 3 only d) 1, 2 and 3
Note4Students:
Prelims: Climate Change Reports;
Mains: Environmental Governance; Climate Justice;
Mentor comments:Recently, climate variability in the form of floods and cyclones has destroyed crops, property and infrastructure, as well as in negative impacts on human health and well-being. All of these impacts set back general socio-economic development. Also globally, Climate change impacts, an array of Internationally guaranteed Human Rights. States have their own set of challenges to take effective measures to redress these climate impacts, and therefore, to mitigate climate change, and to ensure that all human beings have the necessary capacity to adapt to the climate crisis. We must ensure climate justice requires climate action to be consistent with existing human rights, standards, and principles.
Let’s learn
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Why in the News?
The European Court of Human Rights has ruled that countries have a responsibility to protect their citizens from the consequences of climate change, setting a legal precedent for future climate litigation.
Recently, our Supreme Court has also underscored the urgency of recognizing climate change as a human rights crisis.
These two landmark decisions have set important precedents for legal accountability and policy action to address the adverse impacts of climate change on individuals and communities.
How is the Climate crisis interrelated with Human Rights?
The 5th Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change confirms that climate change is caused by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases.
This year’s unprecedented heat was accompanied by other alarming trends, including ocean heat accumulation, sea level rise, Antarctic Sea ice loss, and glacier retreat.
Among other impacts, climate change negatively affects people’s rights to health, housing, water, and food.
Countries such as Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, Finland, South Korea, South Africa, and Philippines have enacted comprehensive climate laws that have facilitated the mobilization of public sector resources, increased capacity for climate action, and promoted cross-sectoral collaboration.
Challenges faced by India:
Rising Temperatures and Natural Disasters: More than 80% of its population lives in districts that are at risk of climate-induced disasters. They are majorly affecting livelihoods, food security, and exacerbating existing socio-economic inequalities.
Agri-dependent Population: With a 1.2 billion growing population and its high dependence on agriculture, India probably will be severely impacted by continuing climate change.
Melting of Himalayan Glaciers: Global observations of melting glaciers suggest that climate change is well underway in the region, with glaciers receding at an average rate of 10–15 meters per year.
Forest Wealth on decrease: India’s forests are already changing because of socioeconomic pressures; virgin forest areas are less dense and monocultures and plantations are preferred to native species. These conditions will be greatly exacerbated by climate change.
Forest Fires: As per State of the Forest Report 2019, over 36% of India’s forest cover is prone to fires, recently being the Nilgiri Forest Fires.
Efforts made by the Indian Government:
Worked on Decoupling Emissions: India has achieved two of its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) targets:
First, by reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33% to 35% from the 2005 level.
Second, by achieving 40% cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel sources, well ahead of the target year of 2030.
Sustainable Development Goals: India’s localization model for the SDGs, has successfully integrated into local-level planning through multi-tiered and multi-stakeholder processes.
For example, in programs like poverty alleviation, food security, access to clean water and sanitation, and gender equality.
Judicial Intervention: Looking at the impacts of climate change from a rights perspective, affecting humanity’s right to health, life, and liberty, the Supreme Court has brought them within the purview of Constitutional Fundamental Rights.
Measures to Enhance India’s Climate Governance:
To Mitigate Climate Change: States must act to limit anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (e.g. mitigate climate change), including through regulatory measures, to prevent to the greatest extent possible the current and future negative human rights impacts of climate change.
Restoring Capacity to Adapt to Climate Change: States must build adaptive capacities in vulnerable communities, by devoting adequate resources to the realization of the economic, social and cultural rights of all persons, particularly those facing the greatest risks.
To Ensure Effective Remedy for Human Rights: States should be accountable to rights-holders for their contributions to climate change including for failure to adequately regulate the emissions of businesses under their jurisdiction.
To Ensure Equity: Those who have contributed the least to greenhouse gas emissions (i.e. the poor, children, and future generations) are those most affected. Hence bringing Equity is a must.
