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Subject: Environment

  • Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) by IPCC

    In the news

    • This newscard is an excerpt from an original article published in the TIE.

    What are Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs)?

    • The Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) were rolled out as part of the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the IPCC in 2014.
    • These are basically emission scenarios that depict pathways of greenhouse gas and aerosol emissions resulting from human activities over time, crucial for climate modelling and forecasting.
    • These pathways were introduced to provide a consistent set of GHGs concentration trajectories for climate modelling and research purposes.
    • The RCPs were officially selected and defined based on their total radiative forcing levels in the year 2100.

    These pathways describe various climate change scenarios based on the amount of greenhouse gases emitted.

    1. RCP 2.6: Limits global warming to less than 2°C above pre-industrial levels while also attempting to keep ocean acidification under control. Greenhouse gas emissions must be reduced significantly compared to current levels.
    2. RCP 4.5: Reflects an intermediate scenario where emissions peak around 2040 and then gradually decrease. Global mean temperature rise is projected to reach approximately 2°C above pre-industrial levels by 2100.
    3. RCP 6: Stabilizes radiative forcing at 6 watts per square meter (W/m²) after 2100 following peaking around mid-century. It aims to achieve a lower level of global warming but does not exclude temporary overshoots beyond 2°C.
    4. RCP 8.5: Presents a high-emission scenario characterized by increasing radiative forcing throughout the century. By 2100, it results in a global mean temperature increase of over 4°C above pre-industrial levels.

    Back2Basics: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

    Description
    Establishment Established in 1988 by WMO and UNEP
    Membership 195 member countries.
    Objective Assess scientific info on human-induced climate change, impacts, and mitigation/adaptation options.
    Main Activity Prepares assessment, special, and methodology reports, crucial for international climate negotiations.
    Scientific Research Relies on global scientific community for literature review and conclusions.
    Working Groups Comprises three groups:

    1. I (climate physics),
    2. II (impacts/adaptation), and
    3. III (mitigation)
    Reports Each group issues reports, compiled into a synthesis report.

    Try this PYQ from CSP 2018:

    “Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now” is an initiative launched by:

    (a) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

    (b) UNEP Secretariat

    (c) UNFCCC Secretariat

    (d) World Meteorological Organisation

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”vot1xq3ins” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

  • An expansive land management policy is overdue

     

    Mains Pyq:  Discuss the role of land reforms in agricultural development. Identify the factors that were responsible for the success of land reforms in India. (UPSC CSE 2016)

     

    Prelims Pyq: With reference to land reforms in independent India, which one of the following statements is correct?  (UPSC CSE 2019)

    1. The ceiling laws were aimed at family holdings and not individual holdings.
    2. The major aim of land reforms was providing agricultural land to all the landless.
    3. It resulted in cultivation of cash crops as a predominant form of cultivation.
    4. Land reforms permitted no exemptions to the ceiling limits. 

    India lost 2.5 per cent of GDP to land degradation

    Context:

    Land is central to all human activities. It provides ecological, economic, social, and cultural services. But this multi-dimensional character of land is often overlooked in land management practices, resulting in excessive stress, land degradation, and environmental draw down.

    What do various reports highlight about land degradation and management?

    • Global Losses Due to Land Degradation: The annual losses of ecosystem services due to land degradation have been estimated at a staggering $6 trillion globally. This highlights the significant economic impact of neglecting land management.
    • UN Convention to Combat Desertification (COP14): The COP14 held in New Delhi in 2019 focused on discussing the problem of land degradation experienced by different countries. It emphasized the need to achieve land degradation neutrality, indicating the urgency of addressing this issue on a global scale.
    • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Special Report: The IPCC’s special report on ‘Climate Change and Land’ in 2019 underscored the importance of country-level stocktaking of land management practices. It recommended near- and long-term actions aimed at reducing competition for land while maximizing co-benefits and minimizing negative impacts on key ecosystem services.
    • Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Report: The FAO’s report titled ‘State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture: The System at Breaking Point’ in 2021 emphasized the urgent need to prioritize land, soil, and water management. It highlighted the neglected area of public policy and human welfare, stressing the importance of caring for the long-term future of land resources.

    What are the challenges in land management in India?

    • Limited Geographical Area, High Population Density: Despite having only 2.4% of the world’s geographical area, India accommodates more than 17% of the world population. This high population density exacerbates land management issues, increasing pressure on available land resources.
    • Degraded Land: Approximately 30% of India’s total geographical area is degraded land. This degradation reduces agricultural productivity, diminishes ecosystem services, and contributes to environmental issues such as soil erosion and desertification.
    • Competition for Arable Land: With around 55% of India’s total geographical area classified as arable land, there is intense competition among farmers and various sectors for access to agricultural land. This competition is further fueled by the demand for land due to rapid urbanization, infrastructure development, and industrial expansion.
    • Urbanization and Infrastructure Development: Rapid urbanization and infrastructure development are leading to the conversion of agricultural land into urban areas, resulting in the loss of fertile land and natural habitats. This trend contributes to land use conflicts, escalating land prices, and changing land rights.
    • Environmental Degradation and Loss of Ecological Functions: The encroachment on natural areas and degradation of land lead to the loss of ecological functions and biodiversity. This not only affects the livelihood opportunities of people dependent on environmental resources but also undermines the buffering capacity of natural ecosystems against disasters such as floods, droughts, and pollution.
    • Climate Change Impacts: Climate change exacerbates land management challenges by altering precipitation patterns, increasing the frequency of extreme weather events, and contributing to temperature rise. These changes further stress land resources, exacerbating land degradation and impacting agricultural productivity.

    What is the current status of land management in India?

    • Sectoral Approach and Administrative Complexity: Land management practices in India are predominantly sectoral, with different government departments implementing their own approaches. This fragmented governance structure leads to administrative complexity and coordination challenges among various stakeholders involved in land management.
    • State Government Jurisdiction: Land management falls under the purview of state governments in India. While this decentralization allows for localized decision-making, it can also lead to inconsistencies in policies and regulations across different regions.
    • Privately Owned Cultural Land: A significant portion of land in India, particularly cultural land, is privately owned. Land-use decisions are constitutionally vested with the owner, which further complicates the regulatory framework and implementation of land management practices.

    Status of Adoption and Implementation Land management practices:

    • Knowledge Gaps: Limited understanding of sustainable land management practices and their implications.
    • Short-Term Planning Bias: Emphasis on short-term gains over long-term sustainability in land-use planning.
    • Fragmented Approach: Lack of coordination among government agencies and stakeholders, leading to disjointed efforts in land management.
    • Lack of Action for Unforeseen Events: Inadequate preparedness and response mechanisms for unforeseen events such as natural disasters or climate change impacts.
    • Regulatory Barriers: Complex regulatory frameworks and bureaucratic hurdles that impede effective land management initiatives.

    What suggestions does this article give for addressing land management challenges in India?

    • Establishment of Multi-Stakeholder Platforms: Setting up multi-stakeholder platforms at the district and sub-district levels to bring together farmers, land managers, policymakers, civil society organizations, business leaders, and investors. This collaborative approach aims to facilitate sectoral integration and collective decision-making in land management.
    • Activation of District Planning Committees: Utilizing Article 243ZD (1) of the Constitution, which provides for district planning committees, to consolidate plans from panchayats and municipalities. These committees can be activated to prepare comprehensive land management plans covering both agricultural and non-agricultural sectors.
    • Adoption of a Landscape Approach: Embracing a landscape approach to land management, which considers the interconnectedness of various land uses and ecosystems. This approach provides deep insights into the potential of land and facilitates the allocation and reallocation of land for appropriate uses. It also enables evaluation, negotiation, trade-offs, and decision-making processes.
    • Integration of Climate-Smart Strategies: Incorporating climate-smart strategies into land management practices to address climate objectives, enhance agricultural production, improve local livelihoods, and promote the conservation of biodiversity. This entails implementing measures that mitigate climate change impacts and enhance resilience in land use planning and management.

     

    Case study of netherland for value addition 

    • Room for the River Program initiated by the Dutch government in 2006 to address flood risks.
    • Program adopts an integrated approach to water and land management, recognizing interconnectedness of river systems, floodplains, and landscapes.
    • Emphasizes nature-based solutions like creating floodplains, restoring wetlands, and constructing bypass channels.
    • Stakeholder engagement crucial for success, involving local communities, landowners, and stakeholders.
    • Aims for resilient landscapes, employing adaptive management for flexible responses to changing environmental conditions.

    In conclusion, effective land management is paramount for sustainable development, global stability, and environmental resilience. By embracing integrated approaches, nature-based solutions, and community engagement, India can address its land management challenges and pave the way for a more sustainable future. It is imperative for policymakers to prioritize these strategies, fostering collaboration and adaptability to safeguard India’s landscapes for generations to come.

     

  • Singhbhum Craton: Insights from the Archaean Age

    Why in the News?

    • Some recent study about the Singhbhum Craton in India, reveals that explosive volcanic eruptions were frequent around 3.5 billion years ago in regions that are also present in South Africa, and Australia.

    What are Cratons?

    • Cratons are stable, ancient portions of the continental lithosphere, consisting of Earth’s two topmost layers—the crust and the uppermost mantle.
    • Cratons are typically found in the interiors of tectonic plates and are characterized by their ancient crystalline basement rock, often dating back to the Archean Eon.
    • Mantle plume events have played a significant role in the evolution of cratons.

    About Singhbhum Craton:

    • The Singhbhum Craton is a geological region in India.
    • Location: It is located in eastern India, covering parts of the states of Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal. The craton is separated from the Bastar Craton by the Mahanadi Graben and is in the vicinity of two Proterozoic mobile belts: the Satpura Mobile Belt and the Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt.
    • Geological features:
      • The rocks in the Singhbhum Craton are predominantly of Archean age, ranging from Paleoarchean to Paleoproterozoic.
      • It is a part of the larger Indian Shield, which is a stable continental crust that formed during the Archean Eon.
      • The Singhbhum Craton is known for its abundant occurrences of Banded Iron Formations (BIFs), which are closely associated with basic volcanic and ultrabasic intrusive. The craton is also known for its iron ore deposits, which are found in the Iron Ore Group (IOG) and are closely associated with lavas and tuffs.
      • The Singhbhum Craton has undergone regional metamorphism of the amphibolite facies and is believed to have evolved as a consequence of multiple phases of compressive deformation.
      • The craton is made up of multiple pulses of discrete mantle plume events, resulting in a complex geological history.

    Archaean Eon

    • The Archaean Eon, one of the two formal divisions of Precambrian time, began about 4 billion years ago and extended to the start of the Proterozoic Eon.
    • During this period, life on Earth was limited to simple single-celled organisms lacking nuclei, known as Prokaryota.
    • The atmosphere lacked oxygen, and the Earth’s crust had cooled enough to allow the formation of continents.
    • Volcanic activity was considerably higher than today, with numerous lava eruptions.
    • The oldest rock formations exposed on Earth are from the Archaean Eon.
    • The Archaean rock system includes Archaean Gneisses and Schists, which are the oldest metamorphosed rocks found in abundance in regions like the Dharwar district of Karnataka.

    What are the recent key findings?

    • Submarine Mafic Volcanism: The prevalence of submarine mafic volcanic eruptions between 3.5 and 3.3 billion years ago is documented, enriching our understanding of ancient volcanic and sedimentary processes.
    • Geodynamic Insights: Comparative analysis enhances our comprehension of early Earth tectonic activities and surface/atmospheric processes during the Archaean.

    Research Methodology Used:

    • Field Studies and Radiometric Dating: Detailed field-based studies coupled with uranium-lead radiometric-age dating were employed to establish geological timelines and understand magma crystallization.
    • Comparative Analysis: The geological similarities between the Singhbhum Craton and counterparts in South Africa and Australia were studied, focusing on volcanic eruption patterns.

    Implications and Significance of the study:

    • Earth’s Formative Years: Insights into Earth’s early tectonic activities contribute significantly to understanding the planet’s formative years.
    • Habitable Conditions: Unique geological features, such as greenstone belts, provide invaluable information about early habitable conditions and the emergence of life.
    • Global Geodynamic Processes: Comparative studies across cratons worldwide facilitate the construction of comprehensive models elucidating ancient geodynamic processes prevalent during the Archaean.

  • What are ‘Super Pollutants’?

    Why in the News?

    • Recently, the annual meeting of the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) which took place from 21 to 23 February 2024 in Nairobi, Kenya on the margins of the Sixth session of the United Nations Environment Assembly (UNEA-6) highlighted the critical importance of international collaboration in combating short-lived climate pollutants, commonly known as “Super Pollutants.”

    What are Super Pollutants?

    • Super pollutants, or short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs), have a shorter atmospheric lifespan compared to CO2 but significantly impact climate change and air quality. Methane (CH4), black carbon (soot), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and tropospheric ozone (O3) are some of the major superpollutants.

    Impacts of Super Pollutants

    • Methane (CH 4):
      • Characteristics: Potent greenhouse gas emitted from various sources such as livestock and fossil fuel production.
      • Its Impact: Traps heat in the atmosphere, exacerbating climate change.
    • Black Carbon (Soot):
      • Characteristics: Fine particulate matter from incomplete combustion of fuels.
      • Its Impact: Absorbs sunlight, heats the atmosphere, and accelerates the melting of snow and ice.
    • Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs):
      • Characteristics: Synthetic greenhouse gases used in refrigeration.
      • Its Impact: High global warming potential despite short atmospheric lifespan.
    • Tropospheric Ozone (O3):
      • Characteristics: Secondary pollutants formed from VOCs and NOx.
      • Its Impact: Contributes to smog, has adverse health effects, and acts as a greenhouse gas.

    About Climate and Clean Air Conference 2024:

    • What is the aim and objective?
      • The CCAC 2024 moved the dialogue forward, focusing on the cost of inaction, highlighting ways to further scale up implementation of the Global Methane Pledge, Clean Air Flagship and Kigali Amendment, and collectively charting the course to 2025 and beyond.
    • What did the CCAC 2024 Feature for?
      • National policy and planning: High-level plenary sessions on global, regional and national efforts to reduce methane, black carbon, and HFCs, including the benefits of fast action, and financing for implementation.
      • Science and Technology: Science Policy Dialogue sessions on latest emerging science and how new information can inform policy development. Technical sessions among CCAC Sector Hub members to showcase best practices in key emitting sectors: agriculture, cooling, fossil fuels, heavy-duty vehicles and engines, household energy, and waste.
      • Focus on Implementation: Practical sessions to further refine work plans among CCAC National Consultants; Non-State Partners and Scientific Advisory Panel Members.
    • What are the Functions?
      • The CCAC works at the nexus of climate and air quality, to deliver multiple benefits from the fast mitigation of short-lived climate pollutants.
      • Driven by policy-relevant science and pragmatism, CCAC works from the ground up, equitably and inclusively, empowering our partners to achieve their respective National Goals and catalyzing action — as well as from the top down, bringing together ministers and leaders to drive high-level ambition.
    • About the previous Conference:
      • The CCAC 2023 was held in Bangkok.
      • As an outcome of this conference, CCAC 2023 integrated planning on climate and clean air is essential to identify priority actions in key emitting sectors to scale up mitigation, and action at the national and regional level is motivating collaboration at the global scale.

  • An undeclared war with nature

    Wayanad: Eight killed in human-wildlife conflict in past 12 months, wayanad elephant attack, human wildlife conflict, kerala, wayanad, tuskers

    Central Idea:

    The article discusses the escalating human-wildlife conflict in Wayanad, Kerala, attributing it to the loss of ecological connectivity and habitat fragmentation caused by human activities such as deforestation, monoculture plantations, and unchecked tourism. It emphasizes the urgent need for coordinated efforts from government departments and stakeholders to address the crisis and restore ecological balance in the region.

    Key Highlights:

    • Recent tragic incidents involving human fatalities due to wildlife attacks, highlighting the severity of the conflict.
    • Decline in elephant corridors over the past two decades, leading to increased wildlife incursions into human settlements.
    • Impact of wildlife attacks on human lives, agriculture sector, and domestic animals.
    • Destructive effects of deforestation, monoculture plantations, and tourism on the ecosystem.
    • Failure of authorities to address concerns raised by scientists and activists regarding habitat management and conservation strategies.
    • Inadequate response from the government, including the lack of proper surveillance and monitoring in wildlife management operations.

    Key Challenges:

    • Loss of ecological connectivity and habitat fragmentation due to human activities.
    • Escalating human-wildlife conflict resulting in fatalities and economic losses.
    • Lack of effective coordination among government departments and stakeholders.
    • Failure to enforce environmental laws and conservation measures.
    • Insufficient surveillance and monitoring in wildlife management operations.

    Main Terms:

    • Human-wildlife conflict: Conflict arising from interactions between humans and wild animals, often due to habitat loss and encroachment.
    • Ecological connectivity: The uninterrupted movement of species between habitats, essential for maintaining biodiversity.
    • Habitat fragmentation: Division of natural habitats into smaller, isolated patches, disrupting wildlife movement and ecological processes.
    • Monoculture plantations: Agricultural or forestry practices where only one species is cultivated, leading to loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
    • Ecotourism: Tourism focused on visiting natural areas while conserving the environment and improving the well-being of local people.
    • Wildlife corridors: Strips of habitat connecting fragmented patches, facilitating the movement of wildlife.

    Important Phrases:

    • “Loss of ecological connectivity and habitat fragmentation”
    • “Escalating human-wildlife conflict”
    • “Destructive effects of deforestation and monoculture plantations”
    • “Failure of authorities to address concerns”
    • “Inadequate response from the government”

    Quotes:

    • “In a war with nature, no human would survive.”
    • “The continuous struggle of scientists and activists demanding the revival of habitat management has fallen on deaf ears.”
    • “The recent Operation Jumbo parade captured nine elephants but lacked adequate surveillance and monitoring.”

    Useful Statements:

    • “Loss of ecological connectivity due to habitat fragmentation exacerbates the human-wildlife conflict.”
    • “Government efforts must focus on coordinated strategies to address the crisis and restore ecological balance.”
    • “Failure to enforce environmental laws and conservation measures further aggravates the situation.”

    Examples and References:

    • Recent incidents involving human fatalities due to wildlife attacks in Wayanad.
    • The Wildlife Trust of India’s report on elephant corridors.
    • Official data documenting human deaths and crop losses due to wildlife attacks.

    Facts and Data:

    • Documented human deaths due to wildlife attacks in Wayanad in the last 10 years.
    • Cases of crop loss and domestic animal deaths due to wildlife incursions from 2017 to 2023.
    • Hectares of monoculture plantations out of total forest area in Wayanad.

    Critical Analysis:

    The article effectively highlights the interconnected factors contributing to the human-wildlife conflict in Wayanad, emphasizing the role of human activities such as deforestation and unchecked tourism. However, it lacks detailed analysis of specific policy failures and potential solutions to address the crisis.

    Way Forward:

    • Implement coordinated strategies involving government departments and stakeholders to restore ecological balance.
    • Enforce environmental laws and conservation measures to mitigate habitat loss and fragmentation.
    • Enhance surveillance and monitoring in wildlife management operations to prevent human-wildlife conflicts.
    • Promote sustainable land use practices and eco-friendly tourism initiatives to preserve natural habitats and biodiversity.

    Answer the following question in comment box 

    “How can governments, stakeholders, and communities combat escalating human-wildlife conflict in Wayanad, Kerala, addressing habitat loss, deforestation, and tourism? Additionally, how can they restore ecological balance, mitigate economic losses, and ensure safety for both humans and wildlife?”

  • Supreme Court’s Interim Order on Forest Definition

    forest

    Introduction

    • The Supreme Court issued an interim order on February 19, 2024, emphasizing that states and Union territories (UTs) must adhere to the Definition of ‘Forest’ as established in the TN Godavarman Thirumalpad v. Union of India judgement of 1996.
    • This order came during the hearing of a public interest litigation challenging the constitutionality of the Forest (Conservation) Act, which was amended by the Union government in 2023.

    Why such move?

    • The petitioners highlighted concerns that the 2023 amendment had narrowed the expansive definition of ‘forest’ provided in the Godavarman judgement.
    • They argue that this move potentially aims at diverting forest lands for non-forest use.

    What is Godavarman Judgement?

    • The Godavarman Judgment is a landmark environmental case in India, first heard in the Supreme Court in 1996, commonly referred to as the “Godavarman Case.”
    • Originating as a PIL filed by Mr Godavarman, a retired forest officer, it addressed concerns about forest degradation due to various developmental activities without proper environmental clearances.

    Key Legal and Regulatory Framework

    • Forest Conservation Act (FCA) and Rules: The case primarily interprets and implements the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, and the Forest (Conservation) Rules, 1981, aiming at forest conservation and wildlife protection.
    • Powers of Central Government: The FCA empowers the central government to declare areas as “reserved forest” or “protected forest,” prohibiting non-forest activities without prior approval. It extends to all forests in India, not just declared reserves.
    • Defining Forest: The order defined as any area recorded as forest in the Government record irrespective of the ownership. This definition is broad and encompasses any area recorded as a forest in government records, regardless of its legal status or ownership.
    • Analysis:
    1. Diversion of Forest Land: The case tackled the diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes, emphasizing compliance with the law and due diligence.
    2. Extent of Central Government’s Powers: It clarified that the central government’s authority under the FCA extends to all forests, irrespective of ownership, emphasizing stringent regulation.
    3. Emphasis on Sustainable Development: The court stressed the importance of sustainable development in forest conservation and protecting the rights of forest dwellers and tribal communities.

    Impact of the Judgement

    • Strengthening Forest Conservation Laws: The case led to stricter interpretation and implementation of forest laws, focusing on conservation and protection.
    • Increased Judicial Role in Environmental Governance: It established the judiciary as a watchdog in environmental governance, promoting public scrutiny of environmental decisions.
    • Protection of Forest Lands: Resulted in the cancellation of projects diverting forest land, contributing to biodiversity conservation.
    • Recognition of Rights: Emphasized the recognition and protection of rights of forest dwellers and tribal communities.
    • Promotion of Sustainable Development: Highlighted the importance of balancing economic development with environmental protection.

    Criticism of the Judgement

    • Hindrance to Economic Development: Criticized for hindering economic development and displacing communities.
    • Role of Judiciary: Criticized for causing delays in decision-making and project implementation.

    Key Points of the Recent Order

    • Adherence to 1996 Order: The bench, led by CJI emphasized that states and Union territories (UTs) must adhere to the definition of ‘forest’ as per the Godavarman judgement until the completion of the process of land recorded as ‘forests’ in government records.
    • Recording Forest Land: State and UT administrations are directed to prepare records on forest land within a year from the notification of the 2023 amendment as per Rule 16 of the Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Rules, 2023.
    • Expert Committees: The Union government is instructed to provide a comprehensive record of land registered as ‘forest’ by expert committees constituted by states and UTs within two weeks.
    • Compliance Deadline: All states and UTs must comply with the directions by forwarding the reports of the expert committees by March 31, 2024.

    Additional Directions

    • Zoo and Safari Establishment: Any proposal for the establishment of zoos and safaris in forest areas other than protected areas shall not be finally approved without prior permission from the Supreme Court.
    • Exemption Clause: Section 5 of the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Act, 2023, exempts zoos and safaris from the definition of ‘forests’ within forest areas, excluding protected areas.
    • Government Undertaking: The Union government submitted an undertaking that no precipitative steps would be taken concerning forest areas as per the dictionary sense, in line with the Godavarman judgement.

    Conclusion

    • The Supreme Court’s interim order underscores the importance of preserving forest lands as per the Godavarman judgement and ensuring compliance with environmental protection measures.
    • It aims to safeguard the ecological balance and prevent misuse of forest resources for non-forest purposes.

    Back2Basics: Universal Definition of Forest

    • As per the Conference of Parties (CoP) 9-Kyoto Protocol, the forest can be defined by any country depending upon the capacities and capabilities of the country.
    • Forest- Forest is defined structurally on the basis of
    1. Crown cover percentage: Tree crown cover- 10 to 30% (India 10%)
    2. Minimum area of stand: area between 0.05 and 1 hectare (India 1.0 hectare) and
    3. Minimum height of trees: Potential to reach a minimum height at maturity in situ of 2 to 5 m (India 2m)

    India’s definition of Forests

    The definition of forest cover has clearly been defined in all the India State of Forest Report (ISFR) and in all the International communications of India.

    • The forest cover is defined as ‘all land, more than one hectare in area, with a tree canopy density of more than 10 percent irrespective of ownership and legal status.
    • Such land may not necessarily be a recorded forest area. It also includes orchards, bamboo and palm’.

    Classification of forest cover

    In ISFR 2021 recently published has divided the forest cover as:

    1. Inside Recorded Forest Area: These are basically natural forests and plantations of Forest Department.
    2. Outside Recorded Forest Area: These cover mango orchards, coconut plantations, block plantations of agroforestry.

    Forest Survey of India (FSI) Classification

    • FSI classifies forest cover in 4 classes.
    1. Very Dense forest: All lands with tree cover (including mangrove cover) of canopy density of 70% and above.
    2. Moderately dense forest: All lands with tree cover (including mangrove cover) of canopy density between 40% and 70%.
    3. Open forests: All lands with tree cover (including mangrove cover) of canopy density between 10% and 40%.
    4. Scrubs: All forest lands with poor tree growth mainly of small or stunted trees having canopy density less than 10%.

  • La Nina impacted Air Quality in India: Study

    la nina

    Introduction

    • El Nino and La Nina events have long influenced India’s monsoon patterns, but a recent study suggests a novel connection between these weather phenomena and air quality, particularly during the winter months of 2022.

    Understanding El Nino and La Nina

    • El Nino and La Nina are two opposite phases of the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
    • ENSO is a naturally occurring phenomenon that involves the interaction between the ocean and atmosphere in the equatorial Pacific.

    Here is a detailed comparison of El Nino and La Nina

    El Nino La Nina
    Definition Warmer-than-normal sea surface temperatures Cooler-than-normal sea surface temperatures
    Frequency Every two to seven years Every two to seven years
    Duration Several months to a year or more Several months to a year or more
    Impact on winds Weakens trade winds, leading to changes in patterns Strengthens trade winds, leading to changes in patterns
    Impact on rains Reduces rainfall and can cause droughts Increases rainfall and can cause flooding
    Impact on temp. Warmer-than-average temperatures Colder-than-average temperatures
    Global effects Droughts in Asia and Africa, floods in Americas Floods in Asia and Africa, droughts in South America

    Impact on India

    El Nino La Nina
    Associated with weak monsoons and drought-like conditions in India Associated with above-normal rainfall and floods in India
    Sea surface temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean rises above normal levels Sea surface temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean drops below normal levels
    Changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns Changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns
    Shift in the location of the jet stream, affecting the strength and direction of the monsoon winds Increase in the strength of the monsoon winds, bringing more moisture and rainfall to India
    Results in reduced rainfall, dry spells, and heatwaves, leading to crop failures and water scarcity Excessive rainfall can also lead to floods and landslides, causing damage to crops and infrastructure

    El Nino and Indian Monsoon

    • El Nino and its impact on Indian monsoon: El Nino refers to abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, which tends to suppress monsoon rainfall in India.
    • Phases of El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO): ENSO consists of three phases in the Pacific Ocean: El Nino, La Nina (abnormal cooling), and a neutral phase with sea surface temperatures close to long-term averages.
    • Ocean and atmospheric conditions: ENSO involves not only temperature abnormalities of sea surface waters but also atmospheric conditions, including differences in sea-level air pressure and wind strength and direction.
    • Southern oscillation and the role of winds: Southern Oscillation Index measures the difference in sea-level air pressure over the western and eastern sides of the Pacific Ocean, while wind patterns play a crucial role in ENSO.

    How La Nina impacted air quality?

    • Wind Direction Shift: The study identified a significant alteration in wind circulation patterns during the winter of 2022, with winds typically blowing from the northwest direction diverted towards the south due to the prolonged La Nina effect.
    • Anomalous Behavior: This deviation led to a bypass of pollutant-laden winds from Punjab and Haryana away from Delhi towards southern regions, impacting cities like Mumbai, Bengaluru, and Chennai.
    • Extended La Nina Effect: The persistence of La Nina conditions over three years intensified the impact on wind patterns, culminating in noticeable changes in air quality distribution across India.
    • Uncertainties and Further Exploration: While the study highlights the role of La Nina in altering wind circulation and subsequent air quality, uncertainties remain regarding the potential impact of El Nino events on air quality dynamics.

    Conclusion

    • The study underscores the need for continued exploration into the interplay between global weather phenomena like La Nina, local meteorological conditions, and air quality dynamics in India.
    • Understanding these complex relationships can inform policy measures aimed at mitigating air pollution and enhancing environmental resilience in the face of climate change challenges.

  • Human-Wildlife Conflict in Kerala: Causes and Remedies

    Introduction

    • The escalation of human-wildlife conflict incidents in Kerala, exemplified by recent protests in Wayanad, underscores the urgent need to address the underlying causes of such conflicts.
    • Kerala grapples with a surge in human-animal conflicts, predominantly involving elephants, tigers, bison, and wild boars, wreaking havoc in districts like Wayanad, Kannur, Palakkad, and Idukki.

    Understanding the Conflict

    • Geographical Dynamics: Kerala’s significant forest cover, encompassing nearly 30% of its area, juxtaposed with densely populated human settlements and agricultural plantations near wildlife habitats, sets the stage for frequent human-animal conflicts.
    • Magnitude of Conflict: State Forest Department data reveals over 48,000 incidents of crop damage due to human-wildlife conflict between 2013-14 and 2018-19, with wild elephants being the primary culprits, followed by wild boars and bonnet macaques.

    Root Causes of Conflict

    • Changing Land Use: Increased cultivation around wildlife habitats and changing cropping patterns exacerbate conflicts by encroaching upon natural habitats and altering animal migratory routes.
    • Conservation Efforts: While conservation initiatives have led to the resurgence of animal populations like elephants and tigers, they have inadvertently intensified conflicts due to habitat depletion.
    • Human Activities: Movement of livestock and humans in wildlife habitats, especially during odd hours, further exacerbates conflicts by triggering defensive responses from animals.

    Proposed Solutions and Their Efficacy

    • Physical Barriers: Strategies like elephant-proof trenches and solar power fences have shown promise in mitigating conflicts but face challenges such as inadequate maintenance and breaches by locals.
    • Eco-Restoration Policy: The Forest department’s plan to restore ecosystems by planting indigenous species aims to deter animals from agricultural lands, yet its effectiveness hinges on implementation and sustenance.
    • Early Warning Systems: Adoption of early warning systems, including drones and human watchers, could help track animal movements and prevent confrontations, but their widespread adoption remains limited.

    Addressing Challenges with Wild Boars

    • Culling Initiatives: While the state awaits approval to declare wild boars as vermin, local bodies have been empowered to cull them as a last resort, alongside strategies like capture, neutering, and relocation.
    • Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ): Despite the legislative assembly’s plea to exempt Kerala from ESZ norms, conservationists advocate for its implementation to mitigate conflicts, acknowledging the challenges posed by Kerala’s population density and land scarcity.

    Legal Framework and Conservation Initiatives

    [A] Wildlife Protection and Biodiversity Conservation

    • The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Encompassing measures to prohibit hunting, safeguard wildlife habitats, and establish protected areas, this act forms the cornerstone of India’s wildlife preservation efforts.
    • The Biological Diversity Act, 2002: Complementing existing legislation, this act, in alignment with the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, fortifies conservation endeavors without undermining other forest and wildlife laws.

    [B] National Conservation Strategies

    • National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016): Centered on fortifying protected area networks, conserving endangered species and their habitats, curbing wildlife trade, and promoting research and education, this plan embodies India’s commitment to wildlife preservation.
    • Project Tiger: A pioneering initiative under the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change since 1973, Project Tiger aims to create safe havens for the majestic big cats within India’s national parks.
    • Project Elephant: Launched in 1992, this centrally sponsored scheme endeavors to protect elephants, conserve their habitats and ensure safe migration corridors, thereby safeguarding the iconic species’ future.

    Conclusion

    • Balancing conservation efforts with the safety and livelihoods of Kerala’s populace requires a multifaceted approach that addresses the root causes of human-wildlife conflicts.
    • Collaborative efforts involving stakeholders, stringent regulatory measures, and sustainable conservation practices are imperative to foster coexistence between humans and wildlife in Kerala’s diverse landscape.

  • What are IPCC’s Assessment Reports?

    ipcc

    Introduction

    • Since 1988, the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has been pivotal in assessing climate science and guiding global responses to climate change through its assessment reports and special publications.
    • Last years’ Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) underscores the urgency of addressing climate change, highlighting the need to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

    About IPCC

    Description
    Establishment Established in 1988 by WMO and UNEP
    Membership 195 member countries.
    Objective Assess scientific info on human-induced climate change, impacts, and mitigation/adaptation options.
    Main Activity Prepares assessment, special, and methodology reports, crucial for international climate negotiations.
    Scientific Research Relies on global scientific community for literature review and conclusions.
    Working Groups Comprises three groups:

    1. I (climate physics),
    2. II (impacts/adaptation), and
    3. III (mitigation)
    Reports Each group issues reports, compiled into a synthesis report.

    Key Findings of AR6

    • Urgent Warning: AR6 warns that time is running out to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius and stresses the need for immediate action to mitigate climate change impacts.
    • Adaptation Challenges: The report highlights challenges in adapting to climate change and offers strategies to enhance resilience in natural and human-made systems.

    Initiation of AR7 Cycle

    • IPCC Bureau Meeting: In January 2024, the IPCC initiated its seventh assessment cycle (AR7) with a bureau meeting in Turkey to discuss budgeting, timelines, and the work program.
    • Lessons from AR6: Insights from the AR6 cycle, along with member country submissions, informed discussions on the structure and focus of the upcoming reports.

    Global Stocktake and IPCC’s Role

    • Assessing Progress: The global stocktake (GST) evaluates progress towards the Paris Agreement goals, with the IPCC playing a crucial role in providing scientific input.
    • Alignment with Stocktake: Member countries request IPCC reports to align with the GST, facilitating comprehensive assessments of climate action effectiveness.

    Scope and Timeline of AR7 Cycle

    • Report Components: The AR7 cycle will include full assessment reports, synthesis reports, methodology reports, and a special report on climate change and cities.
    • Revised Guidelines: Methodology reports will cover short-lived climate forcers and carbon removal, while technical guidelines on impacts and adaptation will be updated.
    • Publication Timeline: The bureau aims to publish special and methodology reports by 2027, with the timeline for assessment reports pending further discussion.

    Challenges and Considerations

    • Time Constraints: Balancing the need for timely reports with the rigorous review process and evolving climate research poses challenges.
    • Content Integrity: Shortened timelines may affect the depth and breadth of the reports, potentially compromising their scientific rigor and inclusivity.
    • Engagement Complexity: Limited timeframes may hinder effective engagement with under-represented communities and stakeholders, impacting report quality.

    Conclusion

    • The initiation of IPCC’s AR7 cycle marks a critical juncture in global climate science, emphasizing the urgency of addressing climate change.
    • Despite challenges, the IPCC remains committed to delivering comprehensive and scientifically robust assessments to guide climate action.
    • Collaboration between scientists, policymakers, and stakeholders will be essential in navigating the complexities of climate science and fostering sustainable solutions for a resilient future.

  • Collapse of the Gulf Stream System

    gulf stream

    Central Idea

    • Recent research warns that the Gulf Stream System, known as the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), faces a critical threat of collapse due to unabated global carbon emissions.
    • If left unchecked, this collapse could occur between 2025 and 2095, with a central estimate of 2050.

    What is Gulf Stream System?

    Description
    Origin Begins in the Gulf of Mexico, merging warm waters from the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
    Flow Flows northward along the eastern coast of the United States.
    Current Carries warm waters from the tropics towards higher latitudes.
    Speed and Volume Swift ocean currents with speeds of 2 to 5 miles per hour, transporting 30 million cubic meters per second.
    Function Redistributes heat towards the North Atlantic region, influencing climate and weather patterns.
    Climate Impact Moderates the climate of Western Europe, keeping it relatively warmer than other regions at similar latitudes.
    Interaction with Atmosphere Releases heat and moisture, influencing weather and precipitation.
    Importance for Marine Life Supports diverse marine life, serving as a migratory route for fish and marine mammals.

    Gulf Stream’s Vulnerability

    • Gulf Stream, currently at its feeblest point in 1,600 years, is grappling with the consequences of global heating.
    • Alarming signals of a tipping point were already observed back in 2021.
    • Past collapses during ice ages have triggered rapid temperature shifts of up to 10 degrees Celsius in just a few decades, underlining the immense climatic impact it holds.

    Implications of Collapse

    The potential collapse of Gulf Stream could lead to dire consequences worldwide, including:

    • Disrupted Rainfall Patterns: Billions of people in regions like India, South America, and West Africa, reliant on these patterns for food production, would face food insecurity.
    • Intensified Storms and Colder Temperatures: Europe would experience increased storm activity and colder temperatures.
    • Rising Sea Levels: The eastern coast of North America would be at risk of rising sea levels, posing threats to coastal communities.
    • Endangered Ecosystems: The Amazon rainforest and Antarctic ice sheets could face severe endangerment.