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Subject: Environment

  • Tiger conservation

    Context

    India is now reporting increased tiger numbers, and a recent International Union for Conservation of Nature assessment suggests that tiger numbers have increased by 40% since 2005. This is cause for celebration. But is the rise in tiger numbers enough to prevent their extinction?

    Relations between distribution and genetic variation

    • Decades of research in ecology and evolution suggest that numbers are critical to avoid extinction. 
    • Populations that are smaller than 100 breeding individuals have a high probability of extinction.
    • At the same time, for populations to persist, they should be part of larger landscapes with other such populations that are connected.
    • This is because small populations are subject to chance/random events.
    • These chance events may cause them to lose advantageous genetic variants, while other, detrimental genetic variants might increase in frequency.
    • This process is called genetic drift.
    • Individuals in small populations are more likely to be related, leading to inbreeding.
    • This exposes the many slightly disadvantageous genetic variants that are present in all genomes.
    • When expressed together, these detrimental genetic variants cause inbreeding depression, and reduced survival and reproduction of inbred individuals.
    • A closer look at the distribution of tigers across their range shows that most tiger ‘populations’ are smaller than 100.
    • This raises a question why are we not seeing extinctions happening more often? Is this because tiger populations are connected to each other?

    Research findings about movement of tigers

    • One way to answer the question about not so frequent extinction is to use movement data sourced from radio-collared tigers, often difficult to come by for a rare and endangered species.
    • Alternatively, tigers can be genetically sampled using their excreta/scat, hair and other biological samples from different tiger reserves and analysed in a laboratory.
    • Genetic variants in tiger DNA can be identified and analysed and compared across tiger reserves.
    • Genetic variation in landscape with connectivity: Sets of tiger reserves that show shared genetic variation are well connected — the inference is that the intervening landscapes facilitate connectivity or movement.
    • On the flip side, sets of tiger reserves that share less genetic variation must have barriers or landscapes that impede movement and connectivity.
    • Most land-use types were not too bad for tiger connectivity, including agricultural fields.
    • However, the presence of built-up areas and high traffic roads greatly impeded tiger movement.
    • Results showed that extinction could be avoided if corridors were safeguarded.
    • In summary, as long as we manage landscapes outside tiger reserves to allow tiger movement, and protect prey and tigers inside tiger reserves, tigers are sure to survive in landscapes such as central India.

    Genetic changes in isolated tiger population

    • Black tigers were found only in the Similipal tiger reserve in Odisha.
    • Genome sequences of a litter of zoo tigers that included pseudo-melanistic cubs revealed that a single spelling mistake (or mutation) in a specific gene causes these tigers to look this way.
    • Pseudo-melanistic or black tigers found in Odisha has demonstrated the genetic effects of isolation.
    • Results of the research pointed to genetic drift, or random events that have lead to this genetic variant that causes pseudomelanistic coat colour becoming common only in Similipal.
    • On the other side of India, in Rajasthan, genome sequences from wild tigers reveal that individuals in the Ranthambore tiger reserve show inbreeding.
    • In short, we are seeing the genetic effects of isolation and small population size in wild tigers at some locations.

    Way forward

    • Focus on connectivity: While we celebrate the recovery of tiger populations only by looking at numbers, we must not lose sight of other factors that are critical to their continued survival, such as connectivity.
    • Special attention is needed for populations that are becoming isolated and facing the genetic consequences of such isolation.
    • The future of such populations may depend on genetic rescue or even the introduction of novel genetic variants.

    Conclusion

    We are fortunate that novel genome sequencing technology provides an opportunity to understand tigers much better in the context of their conservation. The future of tigers will require a ‘dialogue’ between such data and management strategies in order to ensure their survival. India is lucky to have so many wild tigers and we must work together to save them.

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    Back2Basics: Pseudo-melanism

    • Tigers have a distinctive dark stripe pattern on a light background of white or golden.
    • A rare pattern variant, distinguished by stripes that are broadened and fused together, is also observed in both wild and captive populations.
    • This is known as pseudo-melanism, which is different from true melanism, a condition characterised by unusually high deposition of melanin, a dark pigment.
    • While truly melanistic tigers are yet to be recorded, pseudo-melanistic ones have been camera-trapped repeatedly, and only, in Simlipal, a 2,750-km tiger reserve in Odisha, since 2007

  • India adds five more Ramsar Sites

    India has added five more Ramsar sites, or wetlands of international importance, bringing the number of such sites in the country to 54.

    Newly added Ramsar Sites

    1. Karikili Bird Sanctuary, Pallikaranai Marsh Reserve Forest and Pichavaram Mangrove in Tamil Nadu,
    2. Sakhya Sagar in Madhya Pradesh
    3. Pala Wetlands in Mizoram

    What are Wetlands?

    • A wetland is a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail.
    • The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other landforms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, adapted to the unique hydric soil.

    Significance of Wetlands

    • Wetlands provide a wide range of important resources and ecosystem services such as food, water, fibre, groundwater recharge, water purification, flood moderation, erosion control, and climate regulation.
    • They are, in fact, are a major source of water and our main supply of freshwater comes from an array of wetlands that help soak rainfall and recharge groundwater.
    • They provide many societal benefits: food and habitat for fish and wildlife, including threatened and endangered species; water quality improvement; flood storage; shoreline erosion control; economically beneficial natural products for human use; and opportunities for recreation, education, and research, etc.

     India and Ramsar Wetlands

    • India’s Ramsar wetlands are spread over 11,000 sq.km — around 10% of the total wetland area in the country — across 18 States.
    • No other South Asian country has as many sites, though this has much to do with India’s geographical breadth and tropical diversity.
    • The UK (175) and Mexico (142) — smaller countries than India — have the most Ramsar sites, whereas Bolivia spans the largest area with 1,48,000 sq.km under the Convention protection.
    • The National Wetland Inventory and Assessment compiled by the ISRO estimates India’s wetlands to span around 1,52,600 square kilometres.

    What makes Ramsar designation significant?

    • Being designated a Ramsar site does not necessarily invite extra international funds.
    • Acquiring this label helps with a locale’s tourism potential and its international visibility.

    Criteria for Ramsar site designation

    To be Ramsar site a place must meet at least one of the criteria as defined by the Ramsar Convention of 1961, such:

    1. Supporting vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or threatened ecological communities or,
    2. If it regularly supports 20,000 or more waterbirds or,
    3. Is an important source of food for fishes,
    4. Spawning ground,
    5. Nursery and/or migration path on which fish stocks are dependent upon.
    6. Static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres
    7. Does not include river channels, paddy fields, human-made water bodies/ tanks specifically constructed for drinking water purposes

    Back2Basics: Ramsar Convention

    • The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (better known as the Ramsar Convention) is an international agreement promoting the conservation and wise use of wetlands.
    • It is the only global treaty to focus on a single ecosystem.
    • The convention was adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 and came into force in 1975.
    • Traditionally viewed as a wasteland or breeding ground of disease, wetlands actually provide fresh water and food and serve as nature’s shock absorber.
    • Wetlands, critical for biodiversity, are disappearing rapidly, with recent estimates showing that 64% or more of the world’s wetlands have vanished since 1900.
    • Major changes in land use for agriculture and grazing, water diversion for dams and canals, and infrastructure development are considered to be some of the main causes of loss and degradation of wetlands.

     

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  • Why is Karnataka opposing Centre’s draft Eco-Sensitive Area norms for Western Ghats?

    The Union Environment Ministry’s latest draft notification on Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA) in the Western Ghats is facing stiff opposition in Karnataka.

    What is the news?

    • The MoEFCC had issued a draft notification that demarcated large parts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Maharashtra as eco-sensitive areas.
    • Among these states, Karnataka contains the largest geographical share of the notified areas in the Western Ghats, at 20,668 sq km.

    ESA in Western Ghats

    • In 2013, the Kasturirangan committee had submitted a report which recommended that 37% of the Western Ghats, covering an area of 59,940 sq km be classified as ESA.
    • On the basis of this, several drafts were introduced which were subsequently rejected by the surrounding states, including Karnataka.

    What is ESA?

    • Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) or Ecologically Fragile Areas (EFAs) are areas notified by the MoEFCC around Protected Areas, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
    • The purpose of declaring ESZs is to create some kind of “shock absorbers” to the protected areas by regulating and managing the activities around such areas.
    • They also act as a transition zone from areas of high protection to areas involving lesser protection.

    How are they demarcated?

    • The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 does NOT mention the word “Eco-Sensitive Zones”.
    • However, Section 3(2)(v) of the Act, says that Central Government can restrict areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries, operations or processes shall be carried out or shall not, subject to certain safeguards.
    • Besides Rule 5(1) of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 states that central government can prohibit or restrict the location of industries and carrying on certain operations or processes on the basis of certain considerations.
    • The same criteria have been used by the government to declare No Development Zones (NDZs).

    Defining its boundaries

    • An ESZ could go up to 10 kilometres around a protected area as provided in the Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2002.
    • Moreover, in the case where sensitive corridors, connectivity and ecologically important patches, crucial for landscape linkage, are beyond 10 km width, these should be included in the ESZs.
    • Further, even in the context of a particular Protected Area, the distribution of an area of ESZ and the extent of regulation may not be uniform all around and it could be of variable width and extent.

    Activities Permitted and Prohibited

    • Permitted: Ongoing agricultural or horticultural practices, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, use of renewable energy sources, and adoption of green technology for all activities.
    • Prohibited: Commercial mining, saw mills, industries causing pollution (air, water, soil, noise etc.), the establishment of major hydroelectric projects (HEP), commercial use of wood, Tourism activities like hot-air balloons over the National Park, discharge of effluents or any solid waste or production of hazardous substances.
    • Under regulation: Felling of trees, the establishment of hotels and resorts, commercial use of natural water, erection of electrical cables, drastic change of agriculture system, e.g. adoption of heavy technology, pesticides etc, widening of roads.

    What does the new draft notification for the Western Ghats say?

    • The draft notification demarcates 46,832 sq km in the five states Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Goa and Tamil Nadu as ESA in the Western Ghats.
    • Kerala is excluded from the draft notification and it had earlier undertaken the exercise of demarcating ESA in the state by physical verification.
    • Among the five states, 20,668 sq km of the ESA lies in Karnataka, 1,461 sq km in Goa, 17,340 sq km in Maharashtra, 6,914 sq km in Tamil Nadu and 449 sq km in Gujarat.
    • According to the notification, the concerned state governments are responsible for monitoring and enforcing the provisions of the notification.

    What are the curbs that the state governments will have to implement?

    • The draft notification states there shall be a complete ban on mining, quarrying and sand mining in the ESA.
    • All existing mines are to be phased out within five years from the date of issue of the final notification or on the expiry of the existing mining lease.
    • It also bars setting up of new thermal power projects and expansion of existing plants in the sensitive area, and the banning of all new ‘Red’ category industries.
    • The construction of new townships and area development projects will also be prohibited in the areas.
    • ‘Orange’ category industries, with a pollution index score of 41-59, such as jute processing and ‘White’ industries that are considered non-polluting will also be allowed with strict compliance.

    What were the suggestions by the Kasturirangan panel?

    • The panel, formed in 2012, was tasked with the mandate of taking a “holistic view of the issue, and to bring synergy”.
    • It aimed to protecting the environment and biodiversity, while maintaining the needs and aspirations of the local and indigenous people, of sustainable development and environmental integrity of the region.
    • The report had recommended a blanket ban on mining, quarrying, red category industries and thermal power projects.
    • It also stated that the impact study of infrastructural projects on the forest and wildlife should be conducted before permission is given.

    What is Karnataka’s stand on the matter?

    • The Karnataka government has been firm in rejecting the implementation of the guidelines.
    • It has staunchly opposed to the Kasturirangan committee report on Western Ghats.
    • It urged that declaring Western Ghats as ESA would adversely affect the livelihood of people in the region.
    • Environmental experts consider the state government’s decision to be disastrous for the biodiversity of the Western Ghats.

     

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  • Kali Bein and its cultural significance

    Punjab CM has been admitted to hospital, days after he had drunk a glass of water directly from the Kali Bein, a holy rivulet in Sultanpur Lodhi.

    What is the Kali Bein?

    • The 165-km rivulet starts from Hoshiarpur, runs across four districts and meets the confluence of the rivers Beas and Sutlej in Kapurthala.
    • Along its banks are around 80 villages and half a dozen small and big towns.
    • Waste water from there as well as industrial waste used to flow into the rivulet via a drain, turning its waters black, hence the name Kali Bein (black rivulet).
    • Dense grass and weeds grew on the water until a cleaning project started.

    Why did Punjab CM drink water from it?

    • The occasion was the 22nd anniversary of the cleaning project, which had started on July 16, 2000.
    • The project has been slow for years after having made remarkable progress in the initial years.
    • Nevertheless, when Mann drank water from it directly, it was a much cleaner Kali Bein than it was before 2000.

    Cultural significance

    • The Kali Bein is of great significance to Sikh religion and history, because the first Guru, Nanak Dev, is said to have got enlightenment here.
    • When Guru Nanak Dev was staying at Sultanpur Lodhi with his sister Bebe Nanki, he would bathe in the Kali Bein.
    • He is said to have disappeared into the waters one day, before emerging on the third day.
    • The first thing he recited was the “Mool Mantra” of the Sikh religion.

    How did the cleaning project start?

    • It was started by environmentalist Baba Balbir Singh Seechewal with a handful of followers, without government help.
    • They removed weeds, treated the water and spread awareness among residents.
    • Six years of hard work paid off when then President A P J Abdul Kalam visited the site in 2006 and praised them for their effort.
    • The then government in Punjab then announced that it would take up the project to stop the discharge of untreated water into the rivulet.

    What is its national significance?

    • At one stage, the project had become a role model for river cleaning missions.
    • The ‘Kali Bein Model’ was cited as the blueprint for the National Mission for Clean Ganga.
    • Uma Bharti, then Union Minister for Water Resources, River Project and Ganga Rejuvenation, visited the Kali Bein in 2015, and called it a Guru Sthan for the Ganga project.

  • Cheetahs likely to arrive in Kuno before August 15

     

    India came one step closer to bringing back the world’s fastest animal, the Cheetah to the country with an agreement signed in New Delhi with Namibia.

    Asiatic Cheetah

    • Cheetah, the world’s fastest land animal was declared extinct in India in 1952.
    • The Asiatic cheetah is classified as a “critically endangered” species by the IUCN Red List, and is believed to survive only in Iran.
    • It was expected to be re-introduced into the country after the Supreme Court lifted curbs for its re-introduction.

    Distribution of cheetahs in India

    • Historically, Asiatic cheetahs had a very wide distribution in India.
    • There are authentic reports of their occurrence from as far north as Punjab to Tirunelveli district in southern Tamil Nadu, from Gujarat and Rajasthan in the west to Bengal in the east.
    • Most of the records are from a belt extending from Gujarat passing through Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha.
    • There is also a cluster of reports from southern Maharashtra extending to parts of Karnataka, Telangana, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
    • The distribution range of the cheetah was wide and spread all over the subcontinent. They occurred in substantial numbers.
    • The cheetah’s habitat was also diverse, favouring the more open habitats: scrub forests, dry grasslands, savannahs and other arid and semi-arid open habitats.

    What caused the extinction of cheetahs in India?

    • The major reasons for the extinction of the Asiatic cheetah in India:
    1. Reduced fecundity and high infant mortality in the wild
    2. Inability to breed in captivity
    3. Sport hunting and
    4. Bounty killings
    • It is reported that the Mughal Emperor Akbar had kept 1,000 cheetahs in his menagerie and collected as many as 9,000 cats during his half-century reign from 1556 to 1605.
    • The cheetah numbers were fast depleting by the end of the 18th century even though their prey base and habitat survived till much later.
    • It is recorded that the last cheetahs were shot in India in 1947, but there are credible reports of sightings of the cat till about 1967.

    Conservation objectives for their re-introduction

    • Based on the available evidence it is difficult to conclude that the decision to introduce the African cheetah in India is based on science.
    • Science is being used as a legitimising tool for what seems to be a politically influenced conservation goal.
    • This also in turn sidelines conservation priorities, an order of the Supreme Court, socio-economic constraints and academic rigour.
    • The issue calls for an open and informed debate.

    Issues in re-introduction

    • Experts find it difficult whether the African cheetahs would find the sanctuary a favorable climate as far as the abundance of prey is concerned.
    • The habitat of cheetahs is needed to support a genetically viable population.

     

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  • Heat Waves across the Europe

    The UK posted its highest temperature ever recorded — crossing 40°C.  Parts of France, Spain and Portugal recorded temperatures between 42 and 46 degrees.

    Why in news?

    • Dozens of towns and regions across Europe reeled under what has been described as a “heat apocalypse”, which has caused widespread devastation this year.
    • Wildfires caused by a combination of extreme heat and dry weather have destroyed 19,000 hectares of forest in southwestern France.

    What is a Heatwave and when is it declared?

    • Heatwaves occur over India between March and June.
    • IMD declares a heatwave event when the maximum (day) temperature for a location in the plains crosses 40 degrees Celsius.
    • Over the hills, the threshold temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.

    How are they formed?

    • Heatwaves form when high pressure aloft (3,000–7,600 metres) strengthens and remains over a region for several days up to several weeks.
    • This is common in summer (in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres) as the jet stream ‘follows the sun’.
    • On the equator side of the jet stream, in the upper layers of the atmosphere, is the high pressure area.
    • Summertime weather patterns are generally slower to change than in winter. As a result, this upper level high pressure also moves slowly.
    • Under high pressure, the air subsides (sinks) toward the surface, warming and drying adiabatically, inhibiting convection and preventing the formation of clouds.
    • Reduction of clouds increases shortwave radiation reaching the surface.
    • A low pressure at the surface leads to surface wind from lower latitudes that brings warm air, enhancing the warming.
    • Alternatively, the surface winds could blow from the hot continental interior towards the coastal zone, leading to heat waves.

    Following criteria are used to declare a heatwave:

    To declare heatwave, the below criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.

    a) Based on Departure from Normal

    • Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
    • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C

    b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)

    • Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≄ 45°C
    • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≄47°C

    How long can a heatwave spell last?

    • A heatwave spell generally lasts for a minimum of four days.
    • On some occasions, it can extend up to seven or ten days.

    Impact of Heat Waves

    • Heat Strokes: The very high temperatures or humid conditions pose an elevated risk of heat stroke or heat exhaustion.
    • Healthcare crisis: Effects from extreme heat are also associated with increased hospitalisations and emergency room visits, increased deaths from cardio-respiratory and other diseases, mental health issues, adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, etc.
    • Productivity loss: Extreme heat also lessens worker productivity, especially among the more than 1 billion workers who are exposed to high heat on a regular basis.
    • Risk of Wildfires: The heat domes act as fuel to wildfires, which destroys a lot of land area every year in countries like the US.
    • Prevents Cloud Formation: The condition also prevents clouds from forming, allowing for more radiation from the sun to hit the ground.
    • Effect on Vegetation: The trapping of heat can also damage crops, dry out vegetation and result in
    • Increased Energy Demands: The sweltering heat wave also leads to rise in energy demand, especially electricity, leading to pushing up rates.
    • Power Related Issues: Heat waves are often high mortality disasters.
    • Infrastructure failure: Avoiding heat-related disasters depends on the resilience of the electrical grid, which can fail if electricity demand due to air conditioning use exceeds supply.

    What is behind the extreme heat waves in Europe?

    Ans. Climate change, but exactly how

    • Scientists are near-unanimous that the heat waves are a result of climate change caused by human activity.
    • Global temperatures have already risen by more than 1°C , and studies in the UK had shown that a one degree rise in temperature raises the probability of the country witnessing 40°C by ten times.
    • The rising global temperature, which this year led to deviations above the normal by as much as 15 degrees in Antarctica, and by more than 3 degrees in the north pole.

    Major factor: Changes in old wind patterns

    • In the case of the US, the record temperatures are being linked to changes in the jet stream — a narrow band of westerly air currents that circulate several km above the earth’s surface.
    • While a conventionally strong jet stream would bring cooler air from the northern Atlantic, in recent years the jet stream has weakened and split into two.
    • This has led to intense and more frequent heat waves over parts of the American continent.

     

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  • What are Tetrapods?

    In Mumbai, the unusual vibrations (like earthquakes), coinciding with high-tide times, were the result of the relocation of tetrapods as part of the ongoing Coastal Road Project (MCRP).

    What are tetrapods?

    • Tetra pod in Greek means four-legged.
    • These are four-legged concrete structures that are placed along coastlines to prevent erosion and water damage.
    • Tetrapods were first used in France in the late 1940s to protect the shore from the sea.
    • They are typically placed together to form an interlocking but porous barrier that dissipates the power of waves and currents.
    • These are large structures, sometimes weighing up to 10 tonnes, and interlocked tetra pods act as a barrier that remains stable against the rocks when buffeted by waves.
    • Tetrapods, each weighing about 2 tonnes, were placed along Marine Drive in the late 1990s to break and dissipate waves and maintain the reclaimed shoreline in South Mumbai.

    How do we know that the removal of the tetrapods was responsible?

    • The BMC has provided vibration monitoring instruments at the site to study the impact of the phenomenon.
    • While the corporation has not officially stated that the removal of the tetrapods caused the vibrations, it has agreed to re-install the structures.
    • They would be put back over the next two-three days during low tide.

     

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  • India’s climate Vulnerability

    Context

    In the absence of COVID-19, climate change-induced disasters would have been India’s biggest red alert in recent years.

    India’s vulnerabilities

    • Temperatures over the Indian Ocean have risen by over 1°C since the 1950s, increasing extreme weather events.
    • India is the fourth worst-hit in climate migration.
    • Heat waves in India have claimed an estimated 17,000 lives since the 1970s.
    • Labour losses from rising heat, by one estimate, could reach â‚č1.6 lakh crore annually if global warming exceeds 2°C, with India among the hardest hit.
    • Extreme heat waves hit swathes of India. Heatwaves are aggravated by deforestation and land degradation, which also exacerbate fires.
    • Agriculture, being water-intensive, does not do well in heat wave-prone areas.

    Way forward

    • Two part approach: India needs a two-part approach:
    • Adaptation: one, to adapt to climate impacts by building resilience against weather extremes, and
    • Mitigation: to mitigate environmental destruction to prevent climate change from becoming more lethal.
    • Climate resistant agriculture: Agricultural practices which are not water-intensive and to support afforestation that has a salutary effect on warming.
    • Financial transfers can be targeted to help farmers plant trees and buy equipment — for example, for drip irrigation that reduces heavy water usage.
    • Crop diversification: Climate-resilient agriculture calls for diversification — for example, the cultivation of multiple crops on the same farm.
    • Climate-resilient agriculture calls for diversification — for example, the cultivation of multiple crops on the same farm
    • Managing vulnerable regions in coastal zones: Floods and storms are worsened by vast sea ingress and coastline erosion in the low-lying areas in the south.
    • It is vital to map flood-risk zones to manage vulnerable regions.
    • Environment Impact Assessments must be mandatory for commercial projects.
    • Design changes: Communities can build round-shaped houses, considering optimum aerodynamic orientation to reduce the strength of the winds.
    • Roofs with multiple slopes can stand well in strong winds, and central shafts reduce wind pressure on the roof by sucking in air from outside.
    • Moving away from fossil fuels: Adaptation alone will not slow climate damages if the warming of the sea level temperatures is not confronted.
    • Leading emitters, including India, must move away from fossil fuels.
    • Expanding and protecting forest cover: a big part of climate action lies in protecting and expanding forest coverage.
    • India gains from being part of the Glasgow declaration on forest protection that 141 countries signed in 2021.
    • Management of dams: Nearly 295 dams in India are more than 100 years old and need repairs.
    • In stemming landslides in Uttarakhand, regulations must stop the building of dams on steep slopes and eco-fragile areas, as well as the dynamiting of hills, sand mining, and quarrying.
    • Climate financing: India’s share in disaster management should be raised to 2.5% of GDP.
    • Climate finance is most suited for large-scale global funding from the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Asian Development Bank.
    • But smaller-scale financing can also be vital.

    Conclusion

    For public pressure to drive climate action, we need to consider climate catastrophes as largely man-made.

     

  • Forest restoration in India

    Context

    This month is time for Van Mahotsav, which literally means “celebrate the forest”.

    Why tree planting matters

    • According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), deforestation and forest degradation contribute around 12% of global greenhouse gas emissions.
    • The total area occupied by primary forests in India has decreased by 3.6%.
    • Tree planting comes with varied environmental and ecological benefits.
    • Forests are integral in regulating ecosystems, influencing the carbon cycle and mitigating the effects of climate change.
    • Annually, forests absorb roughly 2.6 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide.
    • This absorption includes nearly 33% of the carbon dioxide released from burning fossil fuels.
    • Livelihood: Forests are a boon for local communities and their livelihoods by functioning as a resource base for goods and services.
    • Enrich soil fertility: According to academics from the World Resources Institute, forest ecosystems enrich soil fertility and water availability, enhancing agricultural productivity, and in turn the rural economy.
    • Prevents erosion and flooding: Tree planting prevents erosion and stems flooding.
    • Sustainable forest crops reduce food insecurity and empower women, allowing them to gain access to more nutritional diets and new income streams.
    • Agroforestry lessens rural-to-urban migration and contributes to an increase in resources and household income.
    • Planting trees is deeply linked to the ‘wholistic’ well-being of all individuals, the community, and the planet.

    Afforestation through forest landscape restoration

    • Typically, governments have relied on afforestation and reforestation as a means of establishing trees on non-treed land. These strategies have now evolved.
    • Focus on forest landscape restoration: The focus is now on forest landscape restoration — the process of regaining ecological functionality and improving human welfare across deforested or degraded forest landscapes.
    • Community participation: Forest landscape restoration seeks to involve communities in the process of designing and executing mutually advantageous interventions for the upgradation of landscapes.
    • Nearly two billion hectares of degraded land in the world (and 140 million hectares in India) have scope for potential restoration as forest land.
    • Ensuring diversity of species: A crucial aspect of this process is to ensure the diversity of the species while planting trees.
    •  Natural forests with diverse native tree species are more efficient in sequestering carbon than monoculture tree plantations.
    • Planting diverse species is also healthier for local communities and their livelihoods.
    • An international study published earlier this year in the journal, Science, found that diversifying species in forest plantations has a positive impact on the quality of the forests.

    Programs and initiative for forest restoration

    • The span 2021-2030 is the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, emphasising efforts to restore degraded terrestrial ecosystems including forests.
    • Bonn Challenge: In 2011, the Bonn Challenge was launched with a global goal to restore 150 million hectares of degraded and deforested landscapes by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030.
    • India joined the Bonn Challenge in 2015, pledging to restore 26 million hectares of degraded and deforested land by 2030.
    • An additional carbon sink of 2.5 billion-3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent through forest and tree cover is to be created by 2030.
    • There are a myriad government programmes such as Compensatory Afforestation, the National Afforestation Programme, the National Mission for a Green India (Green India Mission), the Nagar Van scheme and the Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme to name a few.
    • The Green Skill Development Programme is for the youth who aspire to attain employment in the environment and forest sectors.

    Challenges

    • Forest restoration in India faces hurdles in terms of the identification of areas for restoration, a lack of importance accorded to research and scientific strategies in tree planting, stakeholders’ conflicts of interest, and financing.

    Way forward

    • To be successful, forest landscape restoration must be implemented proactively, bolstering landscapes and forest ecosystems to be durable and adjustable in the face of future challenges and societal needs.
    • Involvement of stakeholders: It also needs the involvement and the alignment of a host of stakeholders including the community, champions, government and landowners.
    • Participatory governance: The restoration of natural forest ecosystems can be strengthened through participatory governance by engaging stakeholders.
    • Taking into account socio-economic context: Vulnerable forest-dependent communities should be factored in, and any effort should be tailored to the local socio-economic context and landscape history of a region.

    Conclusion

    In today’s world, forests need to be celebrated more than ever before. Simultaneously, more forests need to be created and restored.

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  • Does Tropical Ozone Hole exist?

    A new ozone hole has been detected over the tropics, at latitudes of 30 degrees South to 30 degrees North, a recent study claimed. But some experts are divided over this.

    Do you know?

    The Antarctic ozone hole — one of the deepest, largest gap in the ozone layer in the last 40 years — has closed, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).

    What is Ozone and Ozone Layer?

    • An ozone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms instead of the usual two (the oxygen we breathe, O2, makes up 21% of the atmosphere).
    • It only exists in the atmosphere in trace quantities (less than 0.001%), but its effects are very important.
    • Ozone molecules are created by the interaction of ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the Sun with O2 molecules.
    • Because UV radiation is more intense at higher altitudes where the air is thinner, it is in the stratosphere where most of the ozone is produced, giving rise to what is called the ‘ozone layer’.
    • The ozone layer, containing over 90% of all atmospheric ozone, extends between about 10 and 40km altitude, peaking at about 25km in Stratosphere.

    Why need Ozone Layer?

    • The ozone layer is very important for life on Earth because it has the property of absorbing the most damaging form of UV radiation, UV-B radiation which has a wavelength of between 280 and 315 nanometres.
    • As UV radiation is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere, it heats up the surrounding air to produce the stratospheric temperature inversion.

    What is Ozone Hole?

    • Each year for the past few decades during the Southern Hemisphere spring, chemical reactions involving chlorine and bromine cause ozone in the southern polar region to be destroyed rapidly and severely.
    • The Dobson Unit (DU) is the unit of measure for total ozone.
    • The chemicals involved ozone depletion are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs for short), halons, and carbon tetrachloride.
    • They are used for a wide range of applications, including refrigeration, air conditioning, foam packaging, and making aerosol spray cans.
    • The ozone-depleted region is known as the “ozone hole”.

    Tropical Ozone Hole

    • According to the study, the ozone hole is located at altitudes of 10-25 km over the tropics.
    • This hole is about seven times larger than Antarctica, the study suggested.
    • It also appears across all seasons, unlike that of Antarctica, which is visible only in the spring.
    • The hole has become significant since the 1980s. But it was not discovered until this study.

    What caused an ozone hole in the tropics?

    • Studies suggested another mechanism of ozone depletion: Cosmic rays.
    • Chlorofluorocarbon’s (CFC) role in depleting the ozone layer is well-documented.
    • The tropical stratosphere recorded a low temperature of 190-200 Kelvin (K).
    • This can explain why the tropical ozone hole is constantly formed over the seasons.

    Significance of the finding

    • The tropical ozone hole, which makes up 50 percent of Earth’s surface, could cause a global concern due to the risks associated with it.
    • It is likely to cause skin cancer, cataracts and other negative effects on the health and ecosystems in tropical regions.

    Back2Basics: Antarctic Ozone Hole

    • The Antarctic “ozone hole” was discovered by British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin in 1985.
    • It was caused by the chemical reactions on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) in the cold Antarctic stratosphere caused a massive.
    • Though localized and seasonal, an increase in the amount of chlorine present in active, ozone-destroying forms.

    Role of PSCs

    • The polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica are only formed when there are very low temperatures, as low as −80 °C, and early spring conditions.
    • In such conditions, the ice crystals of the cloud provide a suitable surface for the conversion of unreactive chlorine compounds into reactive chlorine compounds, which can deplete ozone easily.

     

    Try this PYQ

    Q.Consider the following statements:

    Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting substances are used:

    1. In the production of plastic foams
    2. In the production of tubeless tyres
    3. In cleaning certain electronic components
    4. As pressurizing agents in aerosol cans

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1, 2 and 3 only

    (b) 4 only

    (c) 1, 3 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”c3bai87zru” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

     

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