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Subject: Environment

  • Pollution Control can levy Environmental Damages: SC

    Why in the News?

    In a landmark ruling, the Supreme Court has empowered Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) across India with the authority to impose and collect restitutionary and compensatory damages under the Water and Air Acts.

    Key Highlights of Supreme Court Ruling:

    • Key Powers Granted:
      • Impose and collect restitutionary and compensatory damages.
      • Demand bank guarantees in anticipation of environmental harm.
    • Legal Basis:
      • Section 33A, Water Act, 1974: Power to issue directions for closure/regulation of industries and stoppage of utilities to enforce water pollution norms.
      • Section 31A, Air Act, 1981: Similar binding powers to control air pollution; non-compliance is a legal violation.

    About Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

    • Established: September 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Also empowered under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
    • Role: Statutory technical body to promote clean air and water; provides services under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
    • Key Functions:
      • Control and abate water and air pollution; promote stream and well cleanliness.
      • Advise the Central Government on pollution-related issues.
      • Coordinate with and assist State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs); resolve disputes.
      • Monitor pollution in Union Territories via delegated powers under Water, Air, and Water Cess Acts.
    • Develops and revises:
      • National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
      • Water Quality Criteria from various sources.
      • Emission/Discharge Standards under Environment Protection Rules, 1986.
      • Bio-Medical Waste Incineration Norms.
      • Noise/Emission Limits for diesel, LPG, and CNG generators.
    • Minimal National Standards (MINAS) Issuance:
      • Covers effluent, emission, noise, and solid waste across industries.
      • Mandatory for State adoption as baseline standards.
      • Publishes COINDS (Comprehensive Industry Documents), manuals, and codes for pollution treatment and control systems.

    About State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs):

    • Constitution: Formed by State Governments under the Water and Air Acts.
    • Functions:
      • Monitor and control local pollution.
      • Inspect industries and enforce compliance.
      • Advise state governments.
      • Conduct awareness campaigns.
      • Implement control programmes and collaborate with CPCB and local bodies.
    [UPSC 2018] How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)?

    1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by an executive order of the Government.

    2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells and aims to improve the quality of air in the country.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only * (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Asian Giant Tortoise reintroduced in Nagaland

    Why in the News?

    The Asian giant tortoise (Manouria emys), the largest tortoise in mainland Asia, has been reintroduced into the Zeliang Community Reserve in Nagaland’s Peren district.

    Asian Giant Tortoise reintroduced in Nagaland

    About Asian Giant Tortoise (Manouria emys):

    • It is the largest tortoise in mainland Asia.
    • Two subspecies: Manouria emys emys and Manouria emys phayrei.
    • Uniquely, it lays eggs above ground in leaf-litter nests.
    • Behaviour: It is solitary and active mostly during dawn and dusk.
    • Found in evergreen and bamboo forests across India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
    • Habitat in India: Nengpui WLS, Nongkhyllem WLS, and North Cachar Hills.
    • Conservation status: IUCN – Critically Endangered; CITES – Appendix II; Wildlife Protection Act – Schedule IV.
    • Major threats: Illegal hunting for meat, habitat degradation, forest fires, and bamboo removal.
    [UPSC 2017] In India, if a species of tortoise is declared protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, what does it imply?

    Options: (a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the tiger*

    (b) It no longer exists in the wild, a few individuals are under captive protection; and how it is impossible to prevent its extinction

    (c) It is endemic to a particular region of India

    (d) Both (b) and (c) stated above are correct in this context.

     

  • Bird Deaths in Thar Desert

    Why in the News?

    A new study by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) reveals that wind farms in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan, have the highest recorded bird mortality rates globally.

    Bird Deaths in Thar Desert

    Bird Mortality at Wind Farms: Key Findings

    • Study Details: Conducted across 3,000 sq. km in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, covering 90 wind turbines and 272 bird species, including the critically endangered Great Indian Bustard.
    • Carcass Count: 124 bird carcasses found within 150m radius of turbines.
    • Annual Mortality Estimate: 4,464 birds per 1,000 sq. km, after corrections for detection gaps and scavenger interference.
    • Control Sites: 28 sites (500–2,000m from turbines) found zero carcasses — indicating turbines as the direct cause.
    • Reasons:
      • Policy Gap: Onshore wind projects in India do not require Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), which weakens ecological safeguards.

    India’s Wind Energy Growth:

    • Current Status: India added 3.5 GW of wind power in the first half of 2025 — an 82% YoY increase.
    • Total Installed Capacity: Now stands at 51.3 GW.
    • Untapped Potential: Estimated at 1163.9 GW at 150 meters above ground level (National Institute of Wind Energy).

    Comparison with Past Studies:

    • 2019 Studies: Recorded just 0.47 bird deaths per turbine/year in Kutch and Davangere.
    • Thar Desert Rate: 1.24 bird deaths per turbine/month — significantly higher.
    • Contributing Factors:
      • High bird density in Thar.
      • Location along Central Asian Flyway.
      • Collisions with turbine-linked power lines included in this study.

    Proposed Mitigation Measures:

    • Technological:
      • Paint one turbine blade for visibility.
      • Shut down turbines during peak migration or high-risk periods.
    • Planning-Based:
      • Careful Site Selection seen as most critical step.
      • Use of tools like AVISTEP (Avian Sensitivity Tool for Energy Planning), which maps avian sensitivity across India.
      • AVISTEP ranks zones as low to very high sensitivity — intended as a guide for site avoidance.
    [UPSC 2012] Vultures which used to be very common in Indian countryside some years ago are rarely seen nowadays. This is attributed to:

    Options: (a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new invasive species disease among them

    (b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating their diseased cattle persistent and fatal *

    (c) scarcity of food available to them

    (d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among them

     

  • Species in news: Alpine Musk Deer

    Why in the News?

    A Central Zoo Authority (CZA) report reveals a major conservation error — the critically endangered Alpine musk deer was wrongly replaced by the Himalayan musk deer in India’s breeding programmes.

    Species in news: Alpine Musk Deer

    Back2Basics: Central Zoo Authority (CZA):

    • Establishment: Formed in 1992 under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
    • Mandate: Captive breeding, zoo oversight, and assigning species to zoos.
    • Expanded Scope (2022): Includes rescue centres, off-display facilities, and conservation breeding centres.

    About Alpine Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogaster):

    • Not a true Deer: closer to goats and antelopes (Bovidae).
    • Musk Sac: Males have a visible musk sac between the testes.
    • Canines: Grows fang-like canines during the mating season.
    • Habitat: Found at 3,000–5,000 m in forests of the Himalayas.
    • Range: India (J&K, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal), Nepal, Bhutan, China.
    • Diet: Eats grasses, leaves, lichens, mosses, and twigs.
    • Behaviour: Solitary and crepuscular (active at dawn/dusk).
    • Legal Protection:  IUCN Status Critically Endangered (2014), CITES Appendix I; Indian Wildlife Act- Schedule I.
    • Threats: Poaching for musk and habitat loss.
    • Key Habitats: Askot, Gangotri & Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuaries (Uttarakhand).
    [UPSC 2020] Which of the following are the most likely places to find the musk deer in its natural habitat?

    1. Askot Wildlife Sanctuary 2. Gangotri National Park

    3. Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary 4. Manas National Park

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only

     

  • Why the ICJ’s advisory opinion on climate change opens the window for a new, restorative vision of environmental law in India

    Why in the News?

    Recently, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered a landmark advisory opinion on July 23, 2025, clarifying the legal obligations of states regarding climate change.

    Note: The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. While advisory opinions are not formally binding, they hold persuasive (Convince other) legal weight and reflect the Court’s authoritative interpretation of international law.

    What does the ICJ say about saving nature and the climate?

    • Nature is a climate actor, not just a victim: ICJ recognizes ecosystems like forests, oceans, and coral reefs as active parts of the climate system. Eg: Forests absorb CO₂ and regulate rainfall.
    • Protecting nature is a legal climate duty: Countries have a responsibility to safeguard nature as part of their climate obligations. Eg: Wetlands must be preserved to manage floods and store carbon.
    • Ecological literacy is essential: Decision-makers must understand ecosystem roles in climate regulation. Eg: Mangrove destruction worsens storm impact and carbon release.
    • Biodiversity and climate are equal: Climate action must not come at the cost of biodiversity. Eg: Solar parks should not destroy grasslands or wildlife zones.
    • Global justice includes nature’s rights: The ICJ promotes a shift from human-centred to eco-centred justice. Eg: Legal personhood to rivers (like Ganga) aligns with this approach.

    How can India align the ICJ view with Articles 21 and 48A of the Constitution?

    • Recognize environmental rights as part of Right to Life (Article 21): Link clean air, water, and a healthy ecosystem to the fundamental right to life. Eg: Supreme Court’s recognition of the right to a healthy environment in the Subhash Kumar case.
    • Implement Directive Principle on environment (Article 48A): Strengthen policies to protect and improve forests, rivers, and biodiversity. Eg: Initiatives like Namami Gange align with this duty.

    What are the roles of Tribals in India’s climate plans?

    The roles of tribals in India’s climate plans are crucial because they are deeply connected with nature and are key to conservation and climate resilience.

    • Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Tribals have deep understanding of local ecosystems, useful for conservation and climate adaptation. Eg: Bhil tribes, Madhya Pradesh – traditional water harvesting for drought resilience.
    • Forest and Biodiversity Guardianship: Indigenous communities act as forest protectors and biodiversity custodians, aiding carbon sequestration. Eg: Dongria Kondh, Odisha – protect Niyamgiri Hills’ biodiversity.
    • Sustainable Livelihood Practices: Tribes follow low-carbon, eco-friendly practices, supporting climate goals. Eg: Apatani tribe, Arunachal Pradesh – eco-friendly wet rice farming (growing rice in flooded fields).
    • Community-Based Climate Adaptation: Local innovation enables faster climate resilience and resource management. Eg: Women in Kutch, Gujarat – build check dams for water security.
    • Effective Implementation of Climate Schemes: Grassroots involvement improves policy success, ensures inclusive development. Eg: Van Dhan Yojana – empowers tribal collectives for sustainable forest use.

    Which laws should India improve to better protect nature and fight climate change?

    • Strengthen Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Make public consultations more transparent and science-based. Eg: Dilution in EIA 2020 draft faced criticism for reducing oversight on polluting projects.
    • Amend Forest Conservation Act (FCA): Ensure tribal rights and ecological value are protected during land diversion. Eg: FCA 2023 allowed exemptions for some forest lands, risking biodiversity loss.
    • Update Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: Include stricter penalties and real-time monitoring for industrial emissions. Eg: Delhi’s recurring smog highlights the law’s limited deterrence.

    Way forward:

    • Empower Local Communities: Recognize and support tribal and grassroots climate efforts through legal rights, funding, and capacity building.
    • Mainstream Climate in Policy Planning: Integrate climate adaptation and mitigation into urban planning, agriculture, and infrastructure development.
    • Promote Green Finance and Innovation: Incentivize clean technologies, nature-based solutions, and public-private partnerships for sustainable development.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2023] The most significant achievement of modern law in India in the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court. Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws.

    Linkage: The article highlights that India’s Supreme Court has interpreted Article 21 (right to life) to include the right to a healthy environment, and the ICJ’s opinion internationalizes this idea, providing a strong basis for India’s legal framework to embrace a restorative vision.

  • [31st July 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Restoring mangroves can turn the tide on India’s coastal security 

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2019] Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal ecology.

    Linkage: The article explicitly details the importance of mangroves, stating they are “critical in India’s pursuit of climate resilience, biodiversity conservation, and the empowerment of coastal communities”. It explains their role as “natural barriers, protecting coastal communities from cyclones, tidal surges, and erosion”, and their significance in “biodiversity conservation”. The article also discusses the threats leading to their “depletion,” such as “urban expansion, aquaculture, pollution, and changing climate patterns”.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  India’s mangrove forests have come into focus due to growing efforts to restore and protect them amid increasing threats from urban expansion, climate change, and pollution. Recent successful restoration projects in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Mumbai, along with support from government missions and private partners, highlight India’s growing role in mangrove conservation. These forests are vital for climate resilience, coastal protection, and biodiversity, making their preservation a national priority.

    Today’s editorial analyses India’s growing efforts to restore mangrove forests. This topic is important for GS Paper III (Environment) in the UPSC mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    Recently, mangrove restoration efforts in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Mumbai have been successful.

    What is the extent of Mangroves in India?

    • India’s total mangrove cover is 4,992 sq km, accounting for 0.15% of the country’s geographical area (as per ISFR 2021).
    • West Bengal, Gujarat, and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands hold the largest mangrove areas, with West Bengal (Sundarbans) alone covering over 42% of the total.

    Why are mangroves vital for climate and coastal resilience in India?

    • Natural Coastal Shield: Mangroves act as buffers against cyclones, storm surges, and coastal erosion. Eg: During the 2004 tsunami, villages protected by mangroves in Tamil Nadu suffered less damage compared to those without them.
    • Climate Change Mitigation: They store “blue carbon” in biomass and deep soil, helping to absorb excess CO₂. Eg: India’s mangroves contribute significantly to carbon sequestration, aiding in climate targets under the Paris Agreement.
    • Biodiversity Hotspots: Provide breeding grounds for fish, crabs, birds, and other marine life. Eg: Thane Creek Flamingo Sanctuary in Mumbai supports over 180 bird species due to nearby mangroves.
    • Livelihood Support for Communities: Sustain traditional occupations like fishing, honey gathering, and crab farming. Eg: Sunderbans communities rely on mangroves for fishing and honey collection.
    • Disaster Risk Reduction: Reduce the impact of natural disasters by slowing floodwaters and stabilising shorelines. Eg: In Odisha, mangroves helped minimise damage during Cyclone Phailin (2013).

    What threatens India’s mangroves?

    • Urbanisation and Industrial Expansion: Mangrove areas are cleared for ports, housing, and industrial zones. Eg: Mangrove loss in Mumbai due to Navi Mumbai airport construction.
    • Aquaculture and Agriculture Encroachment: Conversion of mangrove land into shrimp farms or paddy fields disrupts ecosystems. Eg: Andhra Pradesh lost mangroves to extensive aquaculture projects.
    • Pollution: Discharge of industrial effluents, plastic, and sewage harms mangrove health. Eg: Thane Creek, Mumbai, faces heavy pollution impacting biodiversity.
    • Climate Change and Sea Level Rise: Changes in salinity, temperature, and rising sea levels affect mangrove regeneration. Eg: Sundarbans face submergence and loss due to rising sea levels.
    • Overexploitation of Resources: Excessive collection of wood, honey, and fodder leads to degradation. Eg: In West Bengal, unsustainable practices by local communities reduce forest cover.

    How has community involvement aided mangrove restoration in Tamil Nadu?

    • Collaborative Restoration Projects: Community members partnered with institutions like the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation and the Tamil Nadu Forest Department for restoring degraded mangroves. Eg: In Muthupettai’s Pattuvanachi estuary, locals helped implement a 115-hectare restoration plan.
    • Tidal Canal Digging for Hydrology Restoration: Villagers participated in digging 19 major canals to restore natural tidal flow, crucial for mangrove survival. Eg: This intervention successfully revived water movement in Muthupettai, enabling mangrove regrowth.
    • Seed Collection and Plantation: Locals actively collected and planted seeds of native mangrove species like Avicennia and Rhizophora. Eg: Over 4.3 lakh Avicennia seeds and 6,000 Rhizophora propagules were planted by community members.
    • Removal of Invasive Species: Community groups helped clear invasive weeds like Prosopis juliflora, which compete with mangroves for space and nutrients. Eg: In Kazhipattur near Buckingham Canal, Chennai, invasive plants were removed before mangrove restoration began.
    • Support for Green Missions and Monitoring: Local residents supported and maintained mangrove cover under the Green Tamil Nadu Mission, ensuring long-term success. Eg: Community participation helped double Tamil Nadu’s mangrove area from 4,500 ha to 9,000 ha (2021–2024).

    What is the role of corporate partnerships in mangrove revival in Mumbai?

    • Financial and Technical Support: Amazon’s Right Now Climate Fund invested $1.2 million (₹10.3 crore) in a restoration project along Thane Creek, enabling large-scale ecological rehabilitation.
    • Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration: Partnered with Hasten Regeneration and Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation to install trash booms that intercept plastic waste, aiming to collect 150 tonnes over 3 years while planting 3.75 lakh mangrove saplings.
    • Community Empowerment and Livelihood Generation: Created paid employment opportunities for local women in planting and maintenance, linking ecological recovery with socio-economic upliftment.

    Why is Gujarat leading in mangrove restoration?

    • Ambitious Scale under MISHTI Scheme: Under the Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes (MISHTI), launched in 2023, Gujarat planted over 19,000 hectares of mangroves within two years—far exceeding the national five-year target of 54,000 hectares.
    • Strategic Coastal Coverage & Biodiversity Focus: Gujarat holds about 23.6% of India’s total mangrove cover, with major plantations in Kutch, Bhavnagar, Surat, and Dumas-Ubhrat. These areas support critical ecological balance, biodiversity, and local livelihoods.
    • Strong Governance, Planning & Local Institutional Support: Efficient coordination between the Gujarat Forest Department, state environment agencies, and local communities has ensured success. Structured coastal mapping, restoration planning, and promotion of ecotourism-linked livelihoods have further strengthened outcomes.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian government? 

    • Green India Mission & State Missions: Through the National Green India Mission and state-level initiatives like the Green Tamil Nadu Mission, the government supports afforestation, ecosystem restoration, and community-based conservation efforts.
    • Inclusion in Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Rules: Mangrove areas are designated as Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) under the CRZ Notification, restricting construction and promoting their protection through legal safeguards and regulatory oversight.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Community-Based Conservation: Empower local communities through training, incentives, and formal roles in monitoring and maintaining mangroves to ensure sustainable, long-term protection.
    • Integrate Mangroves into Climate and Development Planning: Recognise mangroves as vital climate infrastructure by integrating them into coastal zone management, disaster resilience strategies, and carbon credit frameworks.

  • New Guidelines for Management of Contaminated Sites

    Why in the News?

    The Union Environment Ministry has notified the Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025 under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

    About the Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025:

    • Nodal Agency: Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
    • Legal Basis: Framed under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
    • Purpose: India’s first dedicated legal framework to identify, clean up, and monitor contaminated sites.
    • Goal: Prevent environmental degradation, enforce clean-up, and ensure polluter accountability.
    • Funding Pattern:
      • Himalayan & Northeast states: 90% Centre – 10% State
      • Other states: 60% Centre – 40% State
      • Union Territories: 100% Centre

    Key Features:

    • Site Classification: Sites categorized as suspected, potentially contaminated, or confirmed, based on scientific evidence.
    • Exclusions: Sites involving radioactive waste, mining, marine oil spills, or municipal solid waste (regulated separately).
    • Transparency & Tracking: Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) to maintain a real-time online portal with public access.
    • Public Participation:
      • 60-day window for stakeholder feedback post-listing.
      • Final site lists must be published in regional newspapers.
    • Polluter Pays Principle:
      • Identified polluters must bear full remediation cost and repay within 3 months.
      • Land use changes or ownership transfers restricted during/post clean-up.
    • Orphan Sites (No Known Polluter): Clean-up funded through:
      • Environment Relief Fund
      • Environmental violation penalties
      • Government budgetary support
    • Voluntary Remediation: Private entities with technical capacity may remediate sites with landowner consent.
    • Monitoring Committees: State and Central-level bodies to oversee implementation and submit annual compliance reports.

    Back2Basics: Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

    • Enactment: In response to the Bhopal Gas Tragedy; derives authority from Article 253 of the Constitution.
    • Objective: To protect and improve the environment and prevent hazards to life and property.
    • Significance: Acts as India’s umbrella environmental legislation, coordinating with the Water Act (1974) and Air Act (1981).
    • Key Provisions:
      • Pollution standards via Environment (Protection) Rules.
      • Hazardous Waste Rules, 1989 – manage toxic waste.
      • Chemical Safety Rules – control handling of hazardous chemicals.
      • Cells Rules, 1989 – govern gene tech and genetically modified organisms.
    • Power: Empowers the Central Government to act directly for environmental protection.

     

    [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:

    The Environment Protection Act, 1986 empowers the Government of India to:

    1. State the requirement of public participation in the process of environmental protection, and the procedure and manner in which it is sought.

    2. Lay down the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Grassland Bird Census in Kaziranga

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister recently highlighted a first-of-its-kind grassland bird census in Kaziranga National Park, Assam.

    About the Bird Census:

    • Significance: India’s first-ever dedicated census of grassland birds
    • Led by: Chiranjib Bora (PhD scholar), supported by INSPIRE Fellowship from the Department of Science & Technology
    • Organised by: Park authorities, scientists, and conservationists
    • Objective:
      • Document rare, endemic, and threatened grassland bird species
      • Focused on 10 priority species endemic to the Brahmaputra floodplains

    Methodology Used:

    • Passive Acoustic Monitoring (PAM):
      • Recording devices placed in tall trees during breeding season
      • Recordings captured across 29 locations over 3 days
      • Ideal for detecting small, shy, camouflaged birds not easily visible
    • Sound Identification Tools:
      • BirdNet: Machine learning tool used to identify bird calls
      • Spectrograms: Visual analysis of sound patterns; Final identifications verified by ornithologists

    Key Findings:

    • Total Species Recorded: 43 grassland bird species
    • Priority Species Identified: Bengal Florican, Swamp Francolin, Finn’s Weaver, Jerdon’s Babbler, Black-breasted Parrotbill, among others
    • Major Discovery: A breeding colony of over 85 Finn’s Weaver nests—first-ever documentation
    [UPSC 2014] If you walk through countryside, you are likely to see some birds stalking alongside the cattle to seize the insects disturbed by their movement through grasses. Which of the following is/are such bird/birds?

    1. Painted Stork  2. Common Myna  3. Black-necked Crane

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 (d) 3 only

     

  • In news: Kyoto Protocol

    Why in the News?

    Vijai Sharma, a 1974-batch IAS officer and architect of India’s climate diplomacy, who helped shape the Kyoto Protocol for safeguarding the interests of developing countries like India, has passed away.

    About Kyoto Protocol:

    • Adopted: 11 December 1997 (UNFCCC COP-3, Kyoto, Japan); Came into Force: 16 February 2005
    • Legal Status: Legally binding on developed (Annex I) countries
    • Parent Treaty: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992)
    • Objective: Reduce greenhouse gas emissions and address climate change
    • Principle: Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC)
    • Parties: 192 ratified; key non-parties include United States and Canada

    Key Features:

    • Emission Targets:
      • Annex B nations to cut emissions by 5% below 1990 levels (2008–2012)
      • Doha Amendment (2012): 18% cut for 2013–2020
    • Greenhouse Gases Covered:
      • Carbon dioxide, Methane, Nitrous oxide, Hydrofluorocarbons, Perfluorocarbons, Sulfur hexafluoride
    • Market Mechanisms:
      • Clean Development Mechanism (CDM): Carbon credits via projects in developing nations
      • Joint Implementation (JI): Emission reduction between Annex I countries
      • International Emissions Trading: Trade surplus emission units
    • Monitoring and Enforcement:
      • Mandatory reporting and independent verification
      • Compliance Committee oversight
      • Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) included; aviation/shipping excluded
    • Equity Element:
      • No binding targets for developing nations like India and China
      • Developed nations held accountable for historical emissions

    Vijai Sharma’s Contributions:

    • Climate Negotiations Leader: India’s chief negotiator (1995–2001), led G77+China, defended equity and exemptions for developing nations
    • Policy Architect: Helped shape CDM governance, promoted India’s clean-tech access
    • Environmental Reformer: As Environment Secretary (2008–2010), improved clearance processes
    • Legacy: Called “Sir Humphrey Sharma” for his sharp wit and bureaucratic skill; key figure in India’s Kyoto-era climate diplomacy
    [UPSC 2016] Consider the following pairs:

    Terms sometimes seen in the news : Their origin

    1. Annex-I Countries : Cartagena Protocol

    2. Certified Emissions Reductions : Nagoya Protocol

    3. Clean Development Mechanisms : Kyoto Protocol

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Sundarbans set to become India’s Second-Largest TR

    Why in the News?

    The proposal to expand the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve by 1,100 sq km has received clearance from the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) and awaits approval from National Board for Wildlife (NBWL).

    Sundarbans set to become India’s Second-Largest TR

    About Sundarbans Tiger Reserve (STR):

    • Location: Situated in South and North 24-Parganas districts, West Bengal; lies at the southern tip of the Gangetic Delta.
    • Area: Presently 2,585.89 sq km; expansion to 3,629.57 sq km under proposal.
    • Status: Notified as a Tiger Reserve, National Park, Biosphere Reserve; part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site.
    • Unique Feature: World’s only mangrove forest with a viable tiger population.
    • Tiger Count: Over 100 tigers – 80 in core area, 21 in adjoining forests.
    • Landscape: Interconnected estuaries, tidal creeks, and 105 mangrove-covered islands.
    • Flora: Dominated by mangrove species like Avicennia, Rhizophora, Heritiera.
    • Fauna: Includes Royal Bengal Tigers, Fishing Cats, Estuarine Crocodiles, Irrawaddy Dolphins, King Cobras, and endangered reptiles and birds.
    • Boundaries:
      • East: Bangladesh border (Raimangal, Harinbhanga rivers)
      • South: Bay of Bengal
      • North/West: Matla, Bidya, Gomdi Rivers

    Back2Basics: Tiger Reserves in India

    • Overview: A Tiger Reserve is a legally notified area under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 for the conservation of tigers and biodiversity.
    • Governing Authority: National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
    • Origin: Initiated under Project Tiger, launched in 1973.
    • Structure:
      • Core Zone: Highly protected; no human activity allowed; declared as National Park or Sanctuary.
      • Buffer Zone: Surrounds core; allows regulated human use and supports conservation-compatible livelihoods.

    Tiger Reserve Landscape in India (as of 2025):

    • Total Reserves: 58 (up from 46 in 2014)
    • Largest Reserve: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh – 3,727.82 sq km
    • Oldest Reserve: Corbett Tiger Reserve, Uttarakhand – established in 1973
    • Newest Reserves: Guru Ghasidas (Chhattisgarh), Ranipur (Uttar Pradesh), Ramgarh Vishdhari (Rajasthan)
    • Top State: Madhya Pradesh – 7 Tiger Reserves
    • Tiger Density: Bandipur TR > Corbett TR > Kaziranga TR (148, 18.6 tigers/sq. km.)
    • Global Tiger Day: Celebrated on 29th July every year

     

    [UPSC 2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?”

    Options: (a) Corbett (b) Ranthambore (c) Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam* (d) Sunderbans