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Subject: Environment

  • Smoke and Sulphur: On sulphur dioxide emissions, public health

    Why in the News?

    Recently the Environment Ministry of India has recently exempted most coal-fired power plants from installing Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems, reversing its 2015 mandate. This move weakens efforts to control sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions, a harmful air pollutant.

    What is Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) system? 

    Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems are air pollution control technologies used in thermal power plants to remove sulphur dioxide (SO₂) from flue gases (the exhaust emitted when coal or oil is burned).

    Why has FGD installation been exempted for most coal plants?

    • Low Sulphur Content in Indian Coal: Indian coal contains naturally low sulphur, reducing the urgency to control SO₂ emissions. Eg: The expert committee stated that SO₂ levels near plants using Indian coal were already below permissible limits.
    • High Installation and Operational Costs: Installing FGD systems is capital-intensive and can increase electricity tariffs. Eg: Many private power producers cited cost constraints as a barrier to following the 2015 FGD mandate.
    • Limited Vendor Capacity in India: There is a shortage of FGD equipment suppliers, causing delays in implementation. Eg: From 2015–2024, only 8% of 600 units installed FGDs, primarily by NTPC (a public sector company).
    • Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic: The pandemic caused supply chain disruptions and delayed project execution timelines. Eg: The Environment Ministry cited COVID-related delays for missing 2024 FGD deadlines.
    • Scientific Reassessment of SO₂ Effects: New studies suggest sulphates formed from SO₂ may have a climate-cooling effect, weakening the urgency of emission controls. Eg: The Power Ministry argued that reducing sulphates could actually worsen global warming.

    How does SO₂ affect health and air quality?

    • Respiratory Health Impacts: Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) irritates the respiratory tract, causing issues such as asthma, bronchitis, and shortness of breath, especially among vulnerable populations like children and the elderly. In Delhi, spikes in SO₂ levels have been linked to increased hospital visits for respiratory ailments during winter months.
    • Formation of Particulate Matter (PM2.5): SO₂ reacts in the atmosphere to form sulphate aerosols, a major component of PM2.5, which penetrates deep into lungs and contributes to air pollution. Industrial belts like Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh record high levels of particulate pollution, partly due to emissions from coal-fired plants.
    • Reduced Visibility and Environmental Damage: SO₂ contributes to acid rain and haze, damaging crops, soil, and water sources, and reducing visibility. Areas near thermal power plants, such as in Chhattisgarh, have reported acidic soil degradation, affecting agriculture.

    What does selective FGD enforcement indicate about regulation?

    • Location-Based Policy Inconsistency: The decision to mandate FGD installation only near NCR and urban hotspots suggests that environmental regulations are being applied selectively, not based on uniform scientific standards, but geographical and political considerations.
    • Weak Enforcement and Shifting Priorities: Exempting most coal plants despite earlier commitments reflects regulatory dilution, raising concerns about policy backtracking and the government’s willingness to compromise on environmental health in favor of industrial or economic concerns.
    • Undermining Scientific Credibility and Public Trust: Ignoring the original mandate without robust public debate weakens trust in evidence-based regulation, indicating that scientific advisories are not consistently followed in policy implementation.

    Why is public debate vital before policy shifts on pollution?

    • Ensures Transparency and Accountability: Open public debate creates transparency, compelling policymakers to justify decisions and remain accountable to citizens.
    • Strengthens Scientific Rigor: Debate enables scientific scrutiny of environmental claims, ensuring that policy changes are based on credible evidenceand expert consultation.
    • Safeguards Public Health and Democratic Rights: Inclusive discussions protect public health and uphold democratic values by allowing citizens to voice concerns over pollution-related policies.

    Why is public debate vital before policy shifts on pollution?

    • Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) Scheme: Implemented by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), this market-based mechanism promotes energy efficiency in industries, indirectly reducing emissions.
    • National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in 2019, it aims for a 20–30% reduction in PM2.5 and PM10 levels by 2024 (now extended), and addresses urban air pollution through sector-specific mitigation plans.
    • Retrofitting of Plants: Plants identified in pollution hotspots, those near NCR or million-plus cities, are required to install FGD by 2028, as per latest Environment Ministry directive.
    • Promotion of Renewable Energy and Ujjwala Yojana: Transition towards cleaner energy sources (solar, wind) and LPG distribution under Ujjwala Yojana has reduced reliance on coal and biomass, indirectly curbing SO₂ emissions.

    Way forward: 

    • Revise FGD Policy Through Transparent Public Consultation: Any change in environmental regulation, especially exemptions, must involve scientific review, public debate, and stakeholder consultations to ensure credibility and protect public health.
    • Strengthen Pollution Monitoring and Accountability: Enhance the real-time SO₂ monitoring network, enforce uniform emission standards, and link compliance with financial or operational incentives to promote cleaner technologies across all power plants.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] Industrial pollution of river water is a significant environmental issue in India. Discuss the various mitigation measures to deal with this problem and also the government’s initiatives in this regard.

    Linkage: The article talks about the Environment Ministry’s decision to exempt most coal-fired plants from mandatory Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems, which is a significant government initiative related to an environmental issue (sulphur dioxide emissions) and its mitigation. This is a direct and comprehensive question about environmental issues and the government’s initiatives and mitigation measures.

  • Assessing India’s Carbon Credit trading scheme targets 

    Why in the News?

    The Indian government recently set greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity targets for key industrial sectors under its Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS). These targets apply to eight major industries, including steel, cement, aluminium, and textiles, and aim to reduce emissions per unit of production.

    What is CCTS?

    The Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) allows entities—such as factories, refineries, or power plants—that emit less than their permitted carbon limits to earn carbon credits. These credits can then be traded with other entities that have exceeded their emission limits.

    What is the importance of assessing carbon targets at the economy-wide level?

    • Reflects true environmental impact: Evaluating targets at the economy-wide level ensures we understand the overall reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, which is the ultimate goal of climate action.
    • Enables flexible compliance: It allows efficient entities to overachieve and trade credits with less efficient ones, reducing total emissions cost-effectively. Eg: In India’s PAT scheme, cement plants exceeding targets sold energy-saving certificates to aluminium units lagging behind.
    • Aligns with national commitments: It supports the evaluation of whether India is on track to meet its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and net-zero targets, beyond fragmented sectoral views. Eg: India aims to reduce emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 – a goal only visible through economy-wide analysis.

    What is the PAT Scheme?

    The PAT Scheme sets energy efficiency targets for large, energy-intensive industries. Companies that exceed their targets earn Energy Saving Certificates (ESCerts), which they can trade with other companies that fail to meet their targets.

    How has the PAT scheme proven effective in reducing energy intensity?

    • Encouraged market-based efficiency: The Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme allowed industries to meet energy targets using tradable efficiency certificates, creating a cost-effective compliance mechanism.
    • Achieved aggregate reduction: Despite mixed results at the entity or sector level, overall energy intensity in India declined across PAT cycles, proving its system-wide impact. Eg: Between 2012–14, even as chlor-alkali sector’s intensity rose, combined data showed less energy used per unit of output.
    • Enabled flexible transition: PAT helped industries adopt incremental improvements or buy credits instead of making costly in-house upgrades, ensuring participation without economic strain. Eg: Aluminium units improved production processes, while others chose certificate trading to meet targets.

    Why are entity-level targets insufficient to assess emission reduction?

    • Limited Scope of Impact: Targets at the entity level show progress in isolation and may miss the broader picture. For instance, even if some paper or chlor-alkali plants increase their energy use per unit of output, overall national emissions may still fall due to reductions in other sectors.
    • Focus on Transactions, Not Outcomes: These targets often guide financial trades between companies rather than ensuring actual emissions reduction. A steel plant may meet its target not by cutting emissions but by buying efficiency certificates from another unit.
    • Inconsistency Across Sectors: Emission reductions may vary widely across sectors. While cement and aluminium sectors may improve efficiency, others may lag. Solely relying on entity targets could misrepresent the real national decarbonisation progress.

    What limits the comparison of CCTS targets with past and future benchmarks?

    • Mismatch in Scope: The CCTS targets apply only to a part of India’s industrial base, making it difficult to compare them with economy-wide goals like the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs). Eg. CCTS covers only 8 industrial sectors, while NDCs span all sectors including agriculture and transport.
    • Changing Baselines and Ambition Levels: Past schemes like PAT Cycle I had relatively modest targets. Comparing them with current CCTS goals may underestimate the urgency for stronger action aligned with net-zero by 2070. Eg. A sector that achieved 1% reduction earlier may now require over 2.5% annual reduction to stay on track.
    • Different Indicators Used: Past targets often focused on energy intensity, while future goals (like NDCs) emphasise emissions intensity per GDP or value added, making direct comparison methodologically inconsistent. Eg. Comparing energy saved per unit of production vs emissions per unit of GDP distorts true climate ambition.

    How do CCTS targets align with India’s NDC and net-zero goals?

    • Partial Alignment with Emission Intensity Reduction: The CCTS targets aim to reduce emissions intensity in key industrial sectors, contributing to India’s NDC goal of reducing emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 (compared to 2005 levels). However, the annual reduction rateof ~1.68% in CCTS sectors is lower than the required pace for full alignment.
    • Lag Behind Power Sector Decarbonisation: Compared to the power sector, which has low-cost mitigation options and a projected 3.44% annual decline in emissions intensity, the industrial sector’s slower pace (~2.53%) under CCTS may hinder the broader net-zero pathway.
    • Need for Greater Sectoral Ambition: The current CCTS trajectory appears less aggressive than necessary for the 2070 net-zero target. Without scaling upambition across more sectors and tightening targets, CCTS alone cannot ensure full alignment with India’s long-term climate goals.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Sectoral Ambition with Dynamic Targeting: Revise CCTS targets periodically based on economy-wide modelling aligned with India’s NDC and net-zero goals, ensuring progressively stringent emission intensity reductions across all major industrial sectors.
    • Integrate Technology and Incentives: Promote adoption of clean technologies through financial incentives, carbon pricing, and capacity-building support to enable industries to decarbonize efficiently without compromising growth.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2014] Should the pursuit of carbon credit and clean development mechanism set up under UNFCCC be maintained even through there has been a massive slide in the value of carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.

    Linkage: The article talks about the concept of “carbon credit,” which is a fundamental component of carbon trading schemes, including India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) which is related to the demand of the question.

  • Specie in news: Lion-Tailed Macaque

    Why in the News?

    The National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) has granted approval for diverting 142.76 hectares of forest land in Sharavathi Valley Lion-Tailed Macaque Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka.

    https://www.downtoearth.org.in/environment/in-principle-nod-to-sharavathi-valley-hydel-project-in-endangered-lion-tailed-macaque-sanctuary 

    About Lion-Tailed Macaque:

    • Scientific Classification: The Lion-Tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus), also known as the Wanderoo or Bearded Monkey, is an primate species endemic to the Western Ghats of India.
    • Distribution: It is found primarily in the states of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
    • Physical Characteristics: Recognized by a silver-white mane surrounding a black face and a lion-like tuft at the end of its tail, the body is covered in glossy black fur, and both sexes look similar.
    • Habitat and Behaviour
      • Preferences: The species inhabits tropical evergreen rainforests, and is also found in monsoon forests and shola-grassland ecosystems.
      • Habitat: It is arboreal (tree-dwelling) and diurnal (active during the day).
      • Elevation Range: Typically lives at altitudes between 600 and 1,800 metres above sea level.
      • Human Avoidance: Known for being shy, it tends to avoid human contact, staying high in the forest canopy.
      • Social Structure: Lives in social groups of 8 to 20 individuals, usually led by a dominant male.
    • Behaviour:
      • Dietary Habits: Primarily frugivorous, eating fruits, but also consumes leaves, stems, flowers, buds, fungi, and occasionally insects and small animals.
      • Communication System: Possesses a rich vocal communication system with over 17 distinct vocalizations.
      • Territorial Behavior: Males use loud calls to mark territory and warn intruders.
    • Conservation Status:
      • IUCN Status: Classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List.
      • Legal Protection: Appendix I of CITES; Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
    • Population and Conservation Efforts:
      • Population: It is estimated at around only 2,500 individuals.
      • Key Protected Area: The Sharavathi Valley Lion-Tailed Macaque Wildlife Sanctuary in Karnataka hosts the largest known population in any protected area, with around 700 individuals.
    • Ecological Importance:
      • Serves as an indicator species for rainforest health.
      • Plays a vital role in seed dispersal, contributing to forest regeneration.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following fauna:

    1. Lion-tailed Macaque 2. Malabar Civet 3. Sambar Deer

    How many of the above are generally nocturnal or most active after sunset?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None

     

  • Revising Guidelines to declare Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZ)

    Why in the News?

    The Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife (SC-NBWL) has decided to review and revise the 2011 guidelines on the declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) around wildlife sanctuaries and national parks.

    What are Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs)?

    • Overview: ESZs, also called Ecologically Fragile Areas (EFAs), are areas notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) around Protected Areas (PAs) like national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
    • Purpose:
      • Act as “shock absorbers” to protect areas by regulating potentially harmful activities.
      • Serve as transition zones from highly protected to less protected ecosystems.
      • Help conserve biodiversity, maintain landscape connectivity, and prevent fragmentation of habitats.
    • Legal Basis:
      • Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, particularly Section 3(2)(v).
      • Rule 5(1) of Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986.
    • Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2002: Recommended declaring 10 km radius around PAs as default ESZ.
    • Demarcation Process:
      • ESZ boundaries vary in width based on ecological sensitivity and ground realities.
      • Factors considered: species presence, migration routes, landscape linkage, human settlements, etc.
    • Activity Zonation:
      • Prohibited: Commercial mining, polluting industries, major hydro projects, wood logging.
      • Regulated: Tree felling, large-scale agriculture change, road widening, tourism infrastructure.
      • Permitted: Rainwater harvesting, organic farming, green energy use.
    • Present Status:
      • 347 final notifications issued.
      • Where no ESZ is notified, a default 10-km ESZ is applicable (SC 2022 ruling).

    2011 Guidelines on ESZs:

    • Issued by MoEFCC to standardize and guide the process of ESZ declaration.
    • Key Features:
      • Emphasized flexibility and site-specific demarcation.
      • Classified activities into permitted, regulated, prohibited.
      • Directed preparation of a Zonal Master Plan (ZMP) within 2 years of ESZ notification.
      • Called for community involvement, scientific input, and buffer management.

    Recent Context:

    • Reasons Behind: Revision One-size-fits-all (10-km blanket rule) is not effective:
      • Urban examples: Sanjay Gandhi National Park (Mumbai), Asola Bhatti Sanctuary (Delhi).
      • In Himachal Pradesh, ~65% area already under forest cover.
      • Kerala: Fear of new sanctuary leading to more restrictions.
    • Over-generalized: Existing guidelines unsuitable for marine sanctuaries, need ecosystem-specific norms.
    [UPSC 2014] With reference to ‘Eco-Sensitive Zones’, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. Eco-Sensitive Zones are the areas that are declared under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

    2. The purpose of the declaration of Eco-Sensitive Zones is to prohibit all kinds of human activities in those zones except agriculture.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 *

     

  • UNEP Frontiers 2025 Report on Legacy Pollutants

    Why in the News?

    The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), in its latest Frontiers 2025 report titled The Weight of Time, has warned that increased river and coastal flooding caused by climate change could unearth dangerous legacy pollutants from water bodies.

    About Legacy Pollutants:

    • Definition: Legacy pollutants refer to toxic substances like heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) that continue to remain in the environment even decades after their use has been banned or restricted.
    • Examples:
      • Heavy Metals: Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Arsenic.
      • Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs):
        • Pesticides: DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), Aldrin, Endrin, Chlordane.
        • Industrial Chemicals: PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls), Dioxins, Furans.
        • By-products: Produced from incineration, metal smelting, and waste burning.
    • Persistence: These substances are highly resistant to environmental degradation and accumulate in riverbeds, lakes, estuaries, and other sediment-rich ecosystems.
    • Health Hazards: Even at low exposure levels, legacy pollutants can cause: Neurotoxicity (nervous system damage), Immunotoxicity (immune disruption), Hepatotoxicity (liver damage), Reproductive toxicity (infertility, birth defects), Carcinogenicity (various cancers), Endocrine disruption etc.
    • Sources:
      • Past industrial practices, use of banned agricultural chemicals, and obsolete pesticide stockpiles.
      • Improperly managed chemical landfills, which still hold an estimated 4.8–7 million tonnes of POP waste globally.

    UNEP Frontiers 2025 Report on Legacy Pollutants

    Key Highlights of Frontiers 2025: The Weight of Time (UNEP):

    • Retreat of Toxins: Climate change-induced flooding can unearth and redistribute toxic legacy pollutants from contaminated sediments into the environment and food chain.
    • How? Floodwaters re-suspend heavy metals and POPs trapped in sediment.
    • Case Studies Cited:
      • Hurricane Harvey (Texas, 2017): Released mercury and carcinogenic chemicals from flood-induced sediment dispersal into Galveston Bay.
      • Niger Delta Floods (Nigeria, 2012): Mobilised Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) from oil-contaminated sediments.
      • Pakistan Floods (2010 & 2022): Washed away obsolete pesticide stockpiles, spreading DDT and other POPs into floodwaters and soils.
    • India-Specific Findings:
      • Sediments of Ganga, Hindon, and Vaigai Rivers show dangerously high levels of Cadmium.
      • Cadmium is a known carcinogen and endocrine disruptor, with potential to cause kidney, bone, and reproductive harm.
      • Ayad and Vaigai Rivers also showed up deadly levels of Lead concentration.
    [UPSC 2016] Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India?

    1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 4 and 5 only (c) 1, 3 and 5 only* (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

     

  • [10th July 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: How can cat bonds plan for a natural disaster?

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2024] What is disaster resilience? How is it determined? Describe various elements of a resilience framework. Also mention the global targets of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030).

    Linkage: This PYQ, focusing on “disaster resilience” and “Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR),” provides an excellent framework to discuss how catastrophe bonds (cat bonds) function as a financial planning tool for natural disasters. The article “Catastrophe Bonds: Insuring India’s Future Against Disasters” directly addresses the need for such instruments in India’s disaster management strategy.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  Catastrophe bonds (cat bonds) are in the spotlight as India explores innovative disaster risk financing amid rising climate-related calamities. With low disaster insurance penetration, India is considering cat bonds to strengthen post-disaster response, reduce fiscal shocks, and lead a regional South Asian initiative. Global success stories and India’s proactive mitigation funding have revived interest in adopting this financial tool.

    Today’s editorial analyses the Catastrophe bonds (cat bonds). This topic is important for  GS Paper III (Disaster Management) in the UPSC mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    As climate change causes more frequent disasters, countries and insurers are using cat bonds to manage risk. These bonds help raise funds from markets for recovery and rebuilding after disasters.

    What are catastrophe bonds?

    • Catastrophe bonds are risk-linked securities that transfer disaster risk from issuers (usually governments or insurers) to investors. They are triggered when a predefined catastrophic event (like an earthquake, cyclone, or flood) occurs.
    • Eg: The World Bank issued cat bonds for Mexico and Pacific Island countries to cover tropical cyclone and earthquake risks.

    How do they function as instruments for disaster risk financing?

    • Governments (sponsors) pay premiums, and the principal becomes the insured sum; if a disaster hits, investors lose their principal, which goes to recovery. Intermediaries like the World Bank issue the bond, ensuring reliability and reduced counter-party risk.
    • They ensure quicker payouts, reduce dependency on budget allocations, and transfer risk away from insurers to global markets.

    Why is disaster risk insurance penetration low in India?

    • Lack of Awareness and Financial Literacy: Many individuals, especially in rural and hazard-prone areas, are unaware of the importance or availability of disaster insurance. Eg: Farmers vulnerable to floods or droughts often rely on government relief instead of purchasing crop insurance.
    • High Premium Costs and Perceived Low Returns: Insurance premiums are often considered unaffordable or unnecessary, especially when disasters seem unlikely in the short term. Eg: Urban households in seismic zones like Delhi-NCR rarely insure homes against earthquakes.
    • Limited Private Sector Participation and Poor Outreach: The insurance market remains underdeveloped, with few disaster-specific products and limited last-mile delivery mechanisms. Eg: MSMEs in coastal Odisha remain uninsured despite repeated cyclone exposure due to poor insurer penetration.

    How can cat bonds address this gap?

    • Access to Global Capital Markets: Cat bonds transfer disaster risk from governments to global investors, increasing the funding pool for post-disaster recovery. Eg: After Hurricane Maria (2017), Mexico accessed $150 million via a World Bank-backed cat bond, enabling rapid relief.
    • Ensure Quick Payouts for Emergencies: Cat bonds use trigger-based mechanisms (e.g. earthquake magnitude, wind speed) to enable fast disbursement of funds. Eg: In 2021, the Philippines received $52.5 million within weeks after Typhoon Rai, due to pre-agreed cat bond triggers.
    • Reduce Fiscal Pressure on Governments: Pre-disaster financing through cat bonds helps avoid budget shocks and reduce dependency on ad-hoc aid or borrowing. Eg: A cyclone-risk cat bond for Bay of Bengal can pre-finance relief for Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.

    How can India benefit from a regional South Asian cat bond?

    • Shared Risk Pooling for Cost Efficiency: By joining a regional cat bond with countries like Nepal, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, India can pool disaster risks, reducing the premium burden and increasing affordability. Eg: The Pacific Catastrophe Risk Insurance Company (PCRIC) pools risk for Pacific island nations, lowering overall costs.
    • Boosts Regional Cooperation and Preparedness: A shared bond encourages joint early warning systems, emergency planning, and data sharing, improving collective disaster readiness. Eg: SAARC Disaster Management Centre can coordinate common triggers and payout parameters across South Asia.
    • Access to Larger and Diverse Capital Markets: A regional bond can attract more global investors by offering diversified risk, improving fund availability post-disaster for quick response and recovery. Eg: The World Bank’s Southeast Asia Disaster Risk Insurance Facility (SEADRIF) supports countries like Laos and Myanmar through pooled financing.

    What are the key risks in designing and implementing cat bonds?

    • Basis Risk (Mismatch Between Trigger and Actual Loss): There’s a risk that the bond may not pay out even when severe losses occur, if the predefined trigger (e.g., earthquake magnitude or rainfall level) is not met, undermining trust and utility.
    • High Setup and Transaction Costs: Cat bonds require specialized modeling, legal structuring, and investor engagement, which may be too complex or expensive for lower-income or disaster-prone regions without external support.

    Why should India diversify its disaster financing amid climate risks?

    • Rising Frequency and Intensity of Disasters: Climate change is increasing the number of extreme weather events like floods, cyclones, and droughts. Sole reliance on budgetary support and relief funds is unsustainable, making diversified financing (like cat bonds, parametric insurance) essential.
    • Reducing Fiscal Burden and Ensuring Faster Relief: A diversified disaster financing system helps minimize delays in post-disaster response and lessens pressure on state and central budgets, allowing for quick payouts and resilient recovery.

    Way forward:

    • Promote Risk-Based Financing Instruments: Encourage the use of catastrophe bonds, parametric insurance, and public-private partnerships to diversify disaster risk funding and ensure timely payouts.
    • Strengthen Institutional Capacity and Data Systems: Develop robust disaster risk assessment tools, improve climate modelling, and integrate early warning systems to design effective and credible financial instruments.

  • UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

    Why in the News?

    The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations are facing a credibility crisis, as years of underperformance, weak accountability, and neglect of developing countries’ concerns have created growing frustration.

    About the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

    • Overview: The UNFCCC is an international treaty adopted at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to address climate change by stabilizing greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere.
    • Entry into Force: The Convention entered into force on 21 March 1994 and currently has 197 Parties, including all UN member states.
    • Governing Body – COP: The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the supreme decision-making body under the UNFCCC, which meets annually to assess progress and set new targets.
    • Consensus-Based Process: The Convention operates on the principle of consensus, meaning all Parties must agree for a decision to be adopted.
    • Article 2 Objective: The objective of the UNFCCC, as per Article 2, is to stabilize GHG levels at a point that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
    • Key Agreements: The UNFCCC framework led to major global climate agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015).
    • Institutional Structure: It has three main institutional bodies:
      1. SBSTA: Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice
      2. SBI: Subsidiary Body for Implementation
      3. UNFCCC Secretariat: Headquartered in Bonn, Germany
    • Party Classifications:
      • Annex I: Developed countries (OECD + Economies in Transition); Obligated to reduce GHG emissions and submit regular reports.
      • Annex II: Subset of Annex I (OECD members); Required to provide financial and technological support to developing countries.
      • Non-Annex I: Developing countries; No binding emission targets but eligible for support and encouraged to act voluntarily.
      • LDCs (Least Developed Countries): Low-income, highly vulnerable nations; Receive priority support under UNFCCC for adaptation and capacity building.

    India and the UNFCCC:

    • Ratification: India ratified the UNFCCC in 1993 and has participated actively in all COP meetings since then.
    • Party Classification: India is classified as a Non- Annex I Party, meaning it has no binding emission reduction targets under the Convention.
    • Paris Agreement Commitments: Under the Paris Agreement (2015), India submitted Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), including:
      • Reducing emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 from 2005 levels
      • Achieving 50% cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030
    • Climate Diplomacy:
      • India advocates the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR–RC) in all negotiations.
      • India co-founded the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and launched the LiFE Movement (Lifestyle for Environment) to promote sustainable lifestyles.
      • India has opposed unilateral trade measures such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) at multiple climate forums.

    Issues with the UNFCCC Process:

    • Weak Enforcement: The process lacks enforcement mechanisms; countries that fail to meet commitments face no penalties.
    • Consensus Delays: The consensus-based approach often leads to delays and diluted agreements due to the ability of a few nations to block progress.
    • Unmet Commitments: Developed countries have not fulfilled the promised $100 billion per year in climate finance, which was due by 2020.
    • Neglected Developing Country Needs: Critical needs for adaptation finance, capacity building, and technology transfer remain largely unmet for developing nations.
    • Controversial Host Nations: The selection of host countries (e.g., UAE for COP28 and Azerbaijan for COP29) has drawn criticism due to their fossil fuel dependence.
    • Demand for Reforms: At the Bonn Climate Conference (2024), developing countries called for reforms such as:
      • Shifting to majority-based decision-making
      • Imposing limits on fossil fuel industry participation in climate talks
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.

    2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.

    3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanisms (CBAM)

    Why in the News?

    BRICS group has condemned and rejected the European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) and other similar climate-linked trade measures.

    What Is the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)?

    • Overview: It is a climate-related import duty imposed by the European Union on goods whose production involves higher carbon emissions than what is permitted in the EU.
    • Policy Framework: CBAM is part of the EU’s “Fit for 55” climate package, aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels.
    • Scope of Coverage: The policy requires importers to declare the volume and embedded carbon emissions of certain goods, such as steel, aluminium, cement, fertiliser, hydrogen, and electricity.
    • Compliance Mechanism: To offset these emissions, EU importers must surrender CBAM certificates, priced based on the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS).
    • Carbon Price Adjustment: If a non-EU producer has already paid a carbon price in their country, that amount can be deducted from the CBAM charge.
    • Implementation Timeline: The transitional phase of CBAM is underway from 2023 to 2025, and the definitive regime begins on January 1, 2026.

    Issues with CBAM:

    • Trade Discrimination Concerns: Developing countries, including India and China, argue that CBAM imposes unilateral, punitive, and discriminatory trade restrictions under the guise of environmental protection.
    • Violation of Climate Agreements: It is viewed as a violation of Paris Agreement, which upholds the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
    • Neglect of Historical Emissions: Countries in the Global South contend that climate-related trade tools like CBAM ignore historical emissions and disproportionately impact countries still reliant on carbon-intensive development.

    Implications of CBAM for India:

    • Impact on Exports: Indian exports, particularly in iron, steel, aluminium, and cement, will face additional scrutiny and carbon charges under CBAM, reducing their competitiveness.
    • Carbon Taxation Timeline: From January 1, 2026, carbon taxes will be levied on each shipment to the EU in specific sectors, ranging from 19.8% to 52.7% in potential carbon levies.
    • High Carbon Intensity Risk: India’s high carbon intensity, primarily due to its 75% dependence on coal, makes its products more vulnerable to CBAM tariffs.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    Statement-I: Carbon markets are likely to be one of the most widespread tools in the fight against climate change.

    Statement-II: Carbon markets transfer resources from the private sector to the State.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I ** (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

     

  • Rare Great Hornbill sighted in Kerala

    Why in the News?

    The Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)—Kerala’s State bird and a symbol of forest biodiversity—was spotted far outside its usual habitat.

    Rare Great Hornbill sighted in Kerala

    About the Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)

    • Overview: The Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) is the largest hornbill species found in India.
    • Attributes: It is known for its striking yellow casque on the upper mandible, which is hollow and used in vocalisation and courtship.
    • Official Recognition: It is the State Bird of Kerala (as well as Arunachal Pradesh) and is revered in many indigenous cultures for its majestic appearance.
    • Conservation Status: It is listed as Endangered by the IUCN and is protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
    • Habitat: It primarily inhabit evergreen and moist deciduous forests, especially in the Western Ghats, the Himalayan foothills, and Northeast India.
    • Prey Behaviour: They are frugivorous, feeding mainly on figs and other forest fruits, but they may occasionally consume small mammals, birds, and insects.
    • Ecological Significance:  They are known as ‘forest engineers’ or ‘farmers of the forest’, they play a key role in seed dispersal of tropical trees, indicating the health and balance of their forest ecosystems.
    [UPSC 2016] In which of the following regions of India are you most likely to come across the ‘Great Indian Hornbill’ in its natural habitat? Options: (a) Sand deserts of northwest India (b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir (c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat (d) Western Ghats *

     

  • Rising seas, shifting lives and a test of democratic values

    Why in the News?

    India is seeing a worrying rise in people being forced to leave their homes due to climate change along its coasts, revealing serious gaps in how the country manages the environment and supports affected communities.

    What are the socio-economic impacts of coastal climate change?

    • Displacement of Coastal Communities: Rising sea levels, saltwater intrusion, and erosion force people from traditional coastal villages to resettlement colonies. Eg: In Satabhaya, Odisha, entire villages have been submerged, displacing residents with little access to sustainable livelihoods.
    • Loss of Traditional Livelihoods: Coastal degradation affects fishing and agriculture, disrupting long-standing economic systems. Eg: In Honnavar, Karnataka, fishing communities face livelihood loss due to mangrove destruction and tourism development.
    • Forced Migration to Urban Informal Sectors: Displaced people migrate to cities and enter unprotected labour markets, often in exploitative conditions. Eg: Many end up as construction or brick kiln workers in cities like Mumbai or Chennai, without labour rights.
    • Labour Exploitation and Gender Vulnerability: Migrants, especially women, face debt bondage, abuse, and trafficking due to informal employment and lack of legal safeguards. Eg: Displaced women entering domestic work are underpaid and vulnerable to exploitation.
    • Social Inequality and Lack of Legal Protection: The absence of targeted legal frameworks leads to exclusion from welfare schemes and labour protections, worsening socio-economic inequality. Eg: Existing laws like the BOCW Act, 1996, do not cover climate migrants, leaving them unprotected.

    How does climate-induced displacement test India’s democratic values?

    • Right to Life and Dignity (Article 21): Climate displacement challenges the constitutional guarantee of life with dignity, as displaced communities often lack shelter, healthcare, and livelihood.
    • Denial of Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (Article 19(1)(a)): Many infrastructure and tourism projects along the coast proceed without consulting local communities, violating their freedom of expression and participation in governance.
    • Suppression of Protest and Association (Article 19(1)(b) and 19(1)(c)): Environmental defenders and activists resisting unjust displacement face police action, surveillance, and criminalisation, undermining their freedom to protest and form associations.

    Why is a legal framework for climate migrants essential?

    • To Recognise and Protect the Rights of the Displaced: Climate migrants often lose access to housing, work, and basic services. A legal framework ensures their right to life and dignity is upheld under Article 21 of the Constitution. Eg: Villagers displaced from Satabhaya, Odisha, lack legal recognition as climate migrants, preventing access to structured rehabilitation.
    • To Fill Gaps in Existing Laws and Policies: Current laws like the Disaster Management Act, 2005 and CRZ Notification, 2019 focus on emergency response or environmental regulation, not long-term rehabilitation or labour rights. Eg: The NAPCC identifies vulnerability but has no mechanism to integrate displaced people into labour or housing policies.
    • To Prevent Labour Exploitation and Ensure Social Justice: Without legal safeguards, climate migrants, especially in urban informal sectors, face wage theft, abuse, and gendered violence. Eg: Migrants working in brick kilns or as domestic workers in cities remain outside labour codes, exposing them to exploitation.

    What is the role of local movements in protecting coastal communities?

    • Grassroots Resistance Against Destructive Projects: Local movements mobilize communities to protest against unsustainable infrastructure and industrial projects that threaten coastal ecosystems. Eg: The Save Satabhaya campaign in Odisha resisted sea-erosion-driven displacement and demanded proper rehabilitation.
    • Advocacy for Environmental Justice and Rights: These movements highlight environmental injustices, defend the livelihoods of traditional communities, and demand informed consent and legal protection. Eg: Pattuvam Mangrove Protection Movement.
    • Challenging Development Narratives and Policy Gaps: Local struggles question top-down development policies, push for sustainable alternatives, and expose policy loopholes that ignore climate and social impacts. Eg: Protests against the Adani port expansion at Ennore Creek, Tamil Nadu.

    Which reforms can ensure rights-based climate migration policies? (Way forward)

    • Legal Recognition of Climate Migrants: Integrate climate-induced displacement into national migration and disaster policies to ensure affected individuals are officially recognized and protected under law.
    • Labour Code Reforms for Informal Workers: Amend existing labour laws to include climate migrants, especially those in vulnerable sectors like construction and domestic work, ensuring fair wages, social security, and workplace protections.
    • Participatory Coastal Zone Management: Redesign Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) rules to prioritize ecological sustainability and the rights of local communities, with mandatory community consent before approving commercial projects.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] What is sea surface temperature rise? How does it affect the formation of tropical cyclones?

    Linkage: The article highlights “rising seas, saltwater intrusion” and “coastal degradation” as impacts of climate change. This question directly relates to a key oceanic phenomenon influenced by climate change and its effect on extreme weather events like cyclones.