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Subject: Environment

  • Define the concept of carrying capacity of an ecosystem as relevant to an environment. Explain how understanding this concept is vital while planning for sustainable development of a region.

    Carrying capacity refers to the maximum population size or level of resource use that an ecosystem can support without long-term degradation. Eg- A grassland can sustain only a certain number of grazing animals before vegetation declines.

    Determinants of carrying capacity

    Resource availability (food, water, shelter, space)

    Regeneration rate

    Limiting factors (predators, disease, competition, waste)

    Crucial abiotic elements (climate, soil, sunlight)

    Importance of Carrying Capacity for Sustainable Development Planning

    Livelihood Security (SDG-1) – Maintains sustainable fisheries, forestry and pastoral systems without ecological collapse.

    Intergenerational Equity – Safeguards future resource availability by preventing current over-extraction.

    Preventing Resource Depletion – Ensures development does not exceed natural limits, avoiding overuse of land, water and energy.

    Guiding Land-Use and Urban Planning – Eg- Eco-sensitive zones in Western Ghats restrict high-impact activities.

    Controlling Pollution Load – Determines the capacity of air and water bodies to handle waste – Helps in deciding pollution limits

    Conserving Biodiversity – Prevents ecosystem stress that threatens species survival and habitat stability. Eg- Limiting visitor numbers in Kaziranga and Ladakh

    Enhancing long-term resilience to climate shocks. Eg- Strengthening Mangrove carrying capacity helps prevent coastal erosion and storm surge impacts.

    Encourages balanced regional growth without overburdening ecologically fragile regions. Eg- limits on construction and tourism in himalayan states

    Basis for Sustainable Agriculture – Helps determine cropping patterns, irrigation intensity, and livestock numbers suitable for the region.

    Policy and Environmental Governance – Provides a scientific base for EIAs, zoning and regulatory decisions.

    Disaster Risk Reduction – Reduces exposure to floods, landslides and urban heat islands caused by ecological overload. Eg- Joshimath crisis in Uttarakhand

    Population Regulation – Provides a scientific basis for setting population targets aligned with resource limits.

    Way Forward

    Natural Capital Accounting in Economic Policy to recognise ecosystem services as economic assets.

    Nature-Based Infrastructure Development – Eg- Wetland restoration for flood control and mangrove buffers for coastal protection.

    Urban Green Infrastructure Expansion – Eg- Urban forests and restored lakes for flood moderation and heat mitigation. (Miyawaki Method)

    Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) – Direct financial rewards to farmers and communities conserving ecological services.

    Channelising corporate funds into habitat restoration and sustainable supply chains.

    Circular Economy Anchored in Biodiversity Regeneration – Eg- Organic textiles, biodegradable packaging and nature-based construction materials.

    Carrying capacity acts as the ecological boundary for growth, ensuring sustainable and intergenerationally just development.

  • Coastal sand mining, whether legal or illegal, poses one of the biggest threats to our environment. Analyse the impact of sand mining along the Indian coasts, citing specific examples.

    Sand mining refers to the extraction of sand from beaches, river mouths, dunes and seabeds for construction and land reclamation.

    Impact of sand mining

    Environmental Impacts

    Accelerated Coastal Erosion – Removal of sand weakens natural barriers, causing shoreline retreat. Eg – Alappuzha (Kerala).

    Habitat Destruction – Disturbs nesting sites and coastal biodiversity. Eg – Degradation of Olive Ridley turtle nesting beaches in Odisha.

    Saline Intrusion & Groundwater Contamination – Eg – Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu) recorded rising salinity in wells.

    Loss of Mangroves – Destabilised soil and altered hydrology harm protective ecosystems. Eg – Vegetation thinning in parts of the Sunderbans.

    Economic Impacts

    Damage to Infrastructure – Roads, bridges and coastal installations become unstable due to subsidence. Eg – Road collapse incidents in Uttar Kannada (Karnataka).

    Decline in Tourism Revenue – Eroded and degraded beaches reduce tourist inflow.

    Livelihood Loss for Fishing Communities – Altered seabed and turbidity reduce fish catch and destroy spawning grounds.

    Social Impacts

    Disaster induced displacement of coastal communities due to increased vulnerability

    Health Risks from Contaminated Water – Saline intrusion affects drinking water quality.

    Increased and sedimentation in rivers and coastal areas due to depletion of sand from river beds

    Political & Governance Impacts

    Rise of Illegal Sand Mining Networks – Criminalisation of mining fuels corruption. Eg – Sand mafias in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh.

    Threats to Officials – Violent attacks on officers during enforcement drives.

    Way Forward

    Strengthen Regulatory Enforcement

    Tighten monitoring of CRZ norms

    GPS-tracked transport permits

    Eg – Kerala’s drone-based monitoring model.

    Promote Sustainable Alternatives – Eg- M-sand

    Community-Based Coastal Stewardship– Eg – Odisha’s community patrolling linked to turtle conservation.

    Ecological Restoration of Mined Coasts– Eg – Puducherry’s beach nourishment project.

    Improve Inter-State Coordination – joint task forces to curb cross-border sand smuggling.

    Integrate Sediment Budgeting in Coastal Planning to ensure river-to-coast sediment flow is maintained.

    Ensuring sustainable extraction is essential to balance developmental needs with long-term coastal resilience

  • What are the key features of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) initiated by the Government of India?

    The MoEFCC launched NCAP in 2019 with the objective of improving air quality in 131 non-attainment and Million Plus Cities by engaging all relevant stakeholders.

    Key Features of NCAP

    Multi-sectoral initiative involving the coordinated efforts of the Central and State Governments, Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)

    Objectives

    Achieve up to a 40% reduction in PM10 levels or to meet national standards (60 µg/m³) by 2025-26.

    City specific targets ranging from 4-15% by implementing city specific action plans.

    An annual target of 15% improvement in Good Days (Air Quality Index <200) has been prescribed for 49 Million Plus cities/Urban Agglomerations.

    Funding Convergence – Mobilises resources from Central schemes (SBM-Urban, AMRUT), State/UT budgets and municipal bodies to finance City Action Plans

    City-Specific Clean Air Action Plans (CAAPs) targeting transport, industries, road dust, waste burning, and construction sources.

    Expansion of CAAQMS, manual stations, and low-cost sensors for strengthening Air Quality Monitoring

    Source Apportionment studies to list and quantify the significant sources of pollution in a city

    Performance-Based Funding – Annual city rankings under Swachh Vayu Survekshan

    Significance of NCAP

    First-ever effort in the country to frame a national framework for air quality management with a time-bound reduction target.

    Focus on Non-attainment cities that have fallen short of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

    Promotes Scientific and evidence-based Planning

    Strengthens air quality data reliability nationwide.

    Local Governance Reform – Enhances capacity of ULBs in environment management.

    Aligns with India’s Panchamrit Targets in UNFCCC

    Major Challenges

    Non-Binding Targets – Reduction targets are not legally enforceable – weaken accountability.

    Limited Capacity of ULBs/SPCBs – manpower shortage, and technical gaps.

    Inadequate Monitoring Coverage – Rural areas and small towns remain excluded.

    Poor Inter-State Coordination – Transboundary pollution not addressed effectively. Eg- stubble burning

    Insufficient Behavioural Change – Continued preference for private vehicles and biomass burning.

    Funding Constraints – Cities lack dedicated environmental budgets.

    Overlaps between ministries leads to slow decision-making. Eg- between MOEFCC and Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs

    Way Forward

    Empower municipal bodies for real-time emissions tracking. Eg- AI based dashboards.

    Renewable energy transition. Eg- Rooftop solar power.

    High-resolution air quality monitoring network at the construction site linked to automatic sprayers, mist cannons, or sprinklers to reduce dust

    Adopting Global Best Practices – Eg- California’s reinvestment of pollution fines into green projects.

    Vehicular Emission Control –

    Use catalytic converters to reduce Nitrogen and carbon monoxide emissions,

    Expand EV network

    Regulatory measures – Odd-even and congestion pricing (London Model)

    Waste to energy – Eg- biofuels from agriculture waste in Punjab, Haryana

    Expand Urban Green Infrastructure – Eg- Singapore’s green urban planning

    Strengthening NCAP supports India’s Panchamrit climate goals, cleaner-energy transition, and long-term sustainable development objectives.


    Climate Change

  • How does the draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2020 differ from the existing EIA Notification, 2006?

    EIA is a systematic process to evaluate the environmental, social and economic impacts of a proposed project before granting environmental clearance under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.

    Differences between EIA Notification, 2006 and Draft EIA Notification, 2020

    Analysis of Draft EIA

    The future lies in restoring public trust, strengthening scientific rigour, ensuring zero post-facto clearances, aligning EIA with climate resilience goals.

  • Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve these revised standards?

    According to the World Air Quality Report 2024 by IQAir, India is the 5th most polluted country, with an average PM2.5 level of 50.6 µg/m³, 10 times the WHO safe limit (5 µg/m³).

    Key Points of the Revised WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs)

    The 2021 AQGs set significantly lower recommended levels for major pollutants to better protect health.

    Coverage of Six Key Pollutants – PM2.5, PM10, ozone (O₃), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and carbon monoxide (CO).

    Include stepwise interim targets to help countries progressively reduce pollution. Eg- Short-term and long-term average recommendations for NO₂ and CO

    Provide guidance on specific particle types (black carbon, ultrafine particles)

    Differences from the 2005 Update

    More Stringent Pollutant Thresholds –

    The annual PM2.5 guideline was halved, from 10 µg/m³ (2005) to 5 µg/m³ (2021)

    PM10 and NO₂ limits are also significantly reduced.

    Expanded Pollutant Coverage – include updated short-term exposure metrics and carbon monoxide.

    Stronger Scientific Basis – incorporate global epidemiological data and new evidence on low-level health effects, unlike the more limited evidence base of 2005.

    New emphasis on interim milestone targets for progressive improvement, unlike the broader recommendations in 2005.

    Changes Required in India’s National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)

    Revise Reduction Targets to align with WHO’s stricter limits rather than the current 20-40% reduction targets.

    Broaden the air quality monitoring network to include more cities, rural zones, and all six pollutants to match WHO standards.

    Improve enforcement and adopt binding air quality targets rather than advisory ones

    Implement an airshed-based approach that addresses transport, industry, biomass burning and regional pollution transport collaboratively.

    Integrate health impact data and public communication into NCAP, promoting behaviour change

    Strengthening NCAP to meet WHO AQGs supports India’s Panchamrit climate goals, and long-term sustainable development objectives.

  • Explain the purpose of the Green Grid Initiative launched at the World Leaders Summit of the COP26 UN Climate Change Conference in Glasgow in November 2021. When was this idea first floated in the International Solar Alliance (ISA)?

    Green Grid Initiative, launched by India and UK, seeks to establish an inter-connected global renewable power grid, under the principle of “one sun, one world, one grid.”

    Purpose of Green Grid Initiative

    It is based on three thematic pillars:

    Finance – Mobilise investment to double grid funding by 2030.

    Planning, Permits & Operation – Improve long-term planning and speed up approvals for faster grid development.

    Supply Chains – Strengthen manufacturing and match demand with supply of grid components.

    “The Sun Never Sets” Vision – Ensure continuous solar availability globally by connecting regions in different time zones.

    Build international collaboration for the effective use of renewable energy.

    Global Interconnected Grid to accelerate the transition to renewable energy.

    Energy Sharing Mechanism – Enable countries with low sunlight to access power from regions with surplus solar energy.

    Ensuring energy equity and access: enabling mini-grids and off-grid communities

    Accelerate the shift away from fossil fuels by enhancing deployment of clean energy

    History of Green Grid Initiative

    The concept of OSOWOG was first introduced by India’s Prime Minister at the first Assembly of ISA in October 2018.

    It was formally launched by India and UK in COP26

    By building a framework for international cooperation, it strengthens the global pathway towards decarbonisation and energy security by 2030, making it a pivotal instrument for achieving SDG-7 and supporting global climate action.

  • Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference?

    The 26th Conference of the Parties (COP-26) to the UNFCCC, held in Glasgow in 2021, sought to accelerate global efforts to limit warming to 1.5°C under the Paris Agreement.

    Major Outcomes of COP-26

    Recognition of Climate Emergency – Countries reaffirmed the goal of limiting warming to 1.5°C.

    Accelerating Climate Action

    Countries acknowledged this as a critical decade, requiring 45% CO₂ reduction by 2030 to reach net-zero by mid-century.

    They agreed to submit stronger NDCs by 2022, and an annual NDC synthesis report.

    For the first time, parties agreed to phase down unabated coal and phase out inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies, though language was weakened from “phase-out” to “phase-down.”

    Urged immediate fulfilment of Climate Finance Commitments by Developed countries

    Countries agreed to double adaptation finance for developing nations and launched a Global Goal on Adaptation work programme.

    Completing the Paris Rulebook – Consensus achieved on Article 6 (carbon markets), Enhanced Transparency Framework, and common reporting formats.

    Strengthening of the Santiago Network for technical assistance and launch of the Glasgow Dialogue on funding arrangements for loss and damage.

    Major Side Deals & Announcements

    Forests: 137 countries committed to halt and reverse deforestation by 2030.

    103 countries joined the Global Methane Pledge to cut emissions by 30% by 2030.

    Zero-Emission Vehicles: Over 30 countries and major automakers committed to new zero-emission vehicle sales by 2035/2040.

    India’s Commitments at COP-26

    Panchamrit – Five Key Climate Targets

    500 GW of non-fossil electricity capacity by 2030

    50% of energy requirements from renewables by 2030

    Reduction of emissions intensity of GDP by 45% (from 2005 levels) by 2030

    1 billion tonnes reduction in projected carbon emissions by 2030

    Net-zero by 2070

    India, along with the UK, launched the Green Grids Initiative – One Sun, One World and One Grid mission to connect grids

    Call for Climate Justice & Equity – India emphasised Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR-RC) and demanded enhanced finance and technology transfer from developed countries.

    The mantra of LIFE- Lifestyle for Environment as a mass movement for Environment Conscious Lifestyles.

    The summit produced new “building blocks” to advance implementation of the Paris Agreement for sustainable, low-carbon pathway forward.

  • Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

    Global warming refers to the long-term rise in Earth’s average surface temperature due to increased concentration of greenhouse gases (GHGs) from human activities.

    Effects of Global Warming on Global Climate

    Melting Glaciers & Polar Ice – Eg – Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets losing mass at record rates.

    Sea-Level Rise – IPCC projects 1.3-1.6 m SLR by 2100 under high-emission scenarios – Submergence of low-lying coasts, salinity intrusion and displacement.

    Extreme Weather Events – Eg – Increasing frequency of Category 4-5 cyclones in the Indian Ocean.

    Disruption of Monsoons – Erratic and unpredictable rainfall.

    Ocean Acidification – Elevated CO₂ lowers pH, affecting coral reefs and fisheries. Eg – Mass bleaching events on the Great Barrier Reef.

    Biodiversity Decline – Species migration and extinction risks rise.

    Intensification of feedback loops – Eg- Permafrost thaw releases methane, warming oceans release less CO₂, and forest dieback reduces carbon sinks

    Expansion of arid zones – Higher temperatures increase evapotranspiration and reduce soil moisture. Eg – Prolonged droughts in Horn of Africa

    Disruption of Global Thermohaline Circulation – Eg- weakening of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

    Hotter, drier conditions raise wildfire risks – Eg – Australian bushfires (2019-20) and California wildfires

    Control Measures to Reduce GHGs (under Kyoto Protocol, 1997)

    The Kyoto Protocol was the first legally binding global framework mandating GHG reduction by industrialised nations.

    Binding Emission Reduction Targets – Annex-I countries committed to reducing emissions by 5% below 1990 levels during 2008-2012.

    Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) – Allows developed countries to invest in emission-reduction projects in developing nations and earn carbon credits.

    Joint Implementation (JI) – Developed nations can meet their Kyoto targets via emission-reduction projects in other Annex-I countries.

    International Emissions Trading (IET) – countries with surplus emission units trade them with those exceeding their limits.

    Other Measures

    Enhancing Carbon Sinks through afforestation, reforestation and improved land management. Eg- Miyawaki method of Urban Forestry

    Low-Carbon Technologies to reduce fossil-fuel use. Eg- EVs

    Energy Efficiency – Efficiency standards, industrial retrofits, transport reforms and building codes reduce GHG intensity.

    Policy Support for Green Finance – Eg- tax breaks, green bonds, climate insurance etc

    Implementing these through enhanced national commitments, equitable climate finance and rapid decarbonization remains essential for achieving SDG 13 (Climate Action)

  • Discuss in detail the photochemical smog emphasizing its formation, effects and mitigation. Explain the 1999 Gothenburg Protocol.

    Photochemical smog is a secondary air pollutant formed when sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to produce oxidants like ozone and create a brownish haze in urban atmospheres.

    Effects of Photochemical Smog

    Human Health Impacts – Causes respiratory irritation, asthma, reduced lung function and cardiovascular stress.

    In 2021, air pollution caused 2.1 million deaths in India (State of Global Air Report 2024)

    Crop Damage – Ozone leads to leaf chlorosis, reduced photosynthesis and lower yields. Eg- Wheat and soybean show high ozone sensitivity.

    Material Degradation – PAN and ozone corrode rubber, plastics, textiles and paints.

    Reduced Visibility – affect transport and aviation safety. Eg- Delhi in winter

    Mitigation of Photochemical Smog

    Vehicular Emission Control –

    Use catalytic converters to reduce Nitrogen and carbon monoxide emissions,

    Expand EV network

    Regulatory measures – Odd-even and congestion pricing (London Model)

    Industrial Pollution Reduction – Installation of scrubbers, VOC capture systems.

    Waste to energy – Eg- biofuels from agriculture waste in Punjab, Haryana

    High-resolution air quality monitoring network at the construction site linked to automatic sprayers, mist cannons, or sprinklers to reduce dust

    Expand Urban Green Infrastructure – Eg- Singapore’s green urban planning

    Air Quality Forecasting & Alerts – Eg- GRAP-like measures during smog episodes.

    1999 Gothenburg Protocol

    Protocol to the UNECE Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP)

    Sets national emission ceilings for SO₂, NOx, VOCs and ammonia (NH₃).

    Binding country-specific reduction targets for harmful emissions.

    Updated in 2012 to include fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and black carbon.

    Monitoring and Reporting Mechanism for transparency and accountability

    Adopting WHO’s 4 Pillar Strategy is essential to achieve Clean India

    Expanding the knowledge base

    Monitoring and reporting

    Global leadership and coordination

    Institutional capacity strengthening

  • Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal management techniques for combating the hazard?

    Coastal Erosion refers to breaking down and carrying away of materials by sea. As per National Centre for Coastal Research, about 33.6% of Indian coast is eroding.

    Causes

    Natural Causes

    Cyclones and Storm Surges erode dunes and beaches. Eg- Bay of Bengal cyclone belts.

    Climate-induced Sea-Level Rise submerges low-lying coasts. Eg- Sundarbans delta witnessing shoreline retreat.

    Strong tidal flow and seasonal currents disturb sediment balance. Eg- West coast monsoonal erosion.

    Loss of Natural Buffers – depletion of coral reefs, dunes or seagrass beds reduces wave dissipation. Eg- Reef loss around Lakshadweep.

    Anthropogenic Causes

    Construction of Ports, Breakwaters and Jetties interrupt sediment transport, causing erosion downdrift. Eg- Ennore and Puducherry coastlines.

    River Damming – Dams reduce sediment supply reaching deltas and beaches. Eg- Shrinkage of Godavari and Narmada deltas.

    Sand Mining removes beach sediment. Eg- Severe erosion hotspots in Kerala.

    Coastal Land Reclamation increases erosion by altering the shoreline. Eg- Reclaimed coasts around Mumbai.

    Destruction of Mangroves eliminates natural wave barriers.

    Pollution and Ecosystem Degradation reduce shoreline stability. Eg- Coral mortality in Gulf of Mannar.

    Effect

    Effects on Environment

    Loss of Coastal Habitats – Eg- Mangrove loss in the Sundarbans.

    Saltwater Intrusion – degrade freshwater ecosystems. Eg- Salinisation of Andhra Pradesh coastal farmlands.

    Loss of natural buffers heightens storm-surge and monsoon flooding risk. Eg- Erosion-induced flooding in Kerala’s low-lying coast.

    Effects on Economy

    Damage to Infrastructure – Roads, bridges and coastal installations become unstable due to subsidence. Eg – Road collapse incidents in Uttar Kannada (Karnataka).

    Loss of Productive Land – Eg- Farmland abandonment in Tamil Nadu erosion belts.

    Threat to critical infrastructure – Eg- offshore oil plants and windmills

    Effects on Society

    Displacement of Coastal Communities due to Shrinking shorelines

    Loss of Livelihoods – Fishing communities lose landing points and fish stocks.

    Saline intrusion reduces drinking water availability and increases contamination risks.

    Loss of Cultural Heritage – Eg- Threats to traditional coastal temples in Tamil Nadu.

    Available coastal Management Techniques

    Hard Engineering Measures

    Seawalls to block wave attack.

    Groynes – Trap sand and widen beaches. Eg- Puducherry groyne field.

    Breakwaters – Offshore barriers that reduce wave energy. Eg- Chennai port.

    Revetments – Sloped rock armour to absorb wave impact.

    Soft Engineering Measures

    Ecological Restoration of Mined Coasts– Eg – Puducherry’s beach nourishment project.

    Dune Stabilisation – Planting grasses and fencing dunes.

    Mangrove Restoration – Eg- MISHTI-based efforts in Sundarbans.

    Coral and Seagrass Restoration – Eg- Andaman reef rehabilitation.

    Beach cleanliness drives – Eg- Blue Flag Certification

    Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)

    Sediment Budgeting in Coastal Planning to ensure river-to-coast sediment flow is maintained.

    Ecosystem-Based Coastal Planning – Combines geomorphology, ecology and socio-economic factors. Eg- ICZM projects in Gujarat, Odisha, West Bengal.

    Regulatory Tools (CRZ Norms) – no-development zones and hazard mapping reduce vulnerability.

    Coastal Management Information System (CMIS) to collect nearshore coastal data for planning, designing, and maintaining coastal protection structures

    Early Warning Systems – INCOIS alerts for timely action.

    Coastal erosion in India requires integrated, science-based and community-driven management