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Subject: Geography

  • What are the forces that influence ocean currents? Describe their role in fishing industry of the world.

    Ocean currents are continuous, directed movements of seawater generated by a combination of physical, climatic, and planetary forces. They regulate heat distribution, nutrient circulation, marine productivity, and global climate.

    Forces Influencing Ocean Currents

    Solar Energy- Differential heating at the equator causes water to expand and rise slightly, creating a gradient that initiates water flow. Eg- Gulf Stream transporting warm water to Europe.

    Temperature Gradients- Cold water is denser and sinks, while warm water is lighter and rises, driving vertical circulation.

    Planetary winds – Trade winds and westerlies drive surface currents. Eg- North Equatorial Current driven by trade winds.

    Coriolis Force- Earth’s rotation deflects moving water to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and the left in the Southern Hemisphere, forming massive circular Gyres.

    Salinity Variations- High salt content increases water density. The interplay of temperature and salt creates the Thermohaline Circulation (The Global Conveyor Belt).

    Continental Configuration- Landmasses deflect currents. Eg- the Brazilian coast bifurcates the Atlantic South Equatorial Current.

    Gravitational pull of Moon and Sun – Generates tidal currents. Eg- Strong tidal currents in Bay of Fundy.

    Ocean basin topography – Submarine ridges and basins redirect flows. Eg- Mid-Atlantic Ridge influencing deep circulation.

    Atmospheric pressure systems – Cyclones and anticyclones alter local currents. Eg- Seasonal reversal in Indian Ocean currents.

    Role of ocean currents in the fishing industry

    Convergence of warm and cold currents – Enhances plankton growth. Eg- Grand Banks (Labrador + Gulf Stream).

    Nutrient redistribution – Currents spread plankton across oceans. Eg- North Sea fisheries supported by Atlantic Drift.

    Temperature regulation – Determines species distribution. Eg- Tuna migration along warm Kuroshio Current.

    Oxygenation of waters – Supports marine biodiversity. Eg- Upwelling off Namibia (Benguela Current).

    Transport of fish larvae – Currents aid breeding and dispersal. Eg- Japanese fisheries influenced by Oyashio Current.

    Formation of rich continental shelf fisheries – Interaction of currents with shallow waters. Eg- Dogger Bank in the North Sea.

    Climate moderation for fishing communities – Eg- Gulf Stream moderating European coasts.

    Fishermen follow current-driven seasonal fish migration patterns. Eg- Monsoon-linked fishing cycles in Arabian Sea.

    El Niño impacts – Disrupts upwelling and fish stocks. Eg- Collapse of Peruvian fisheries during strong El Niño years.

    Climate variability and disruptions like El Niño increasingly threaten these systems, highlighting the need for sustainable and climate-resilient fisheries management.

  • Dam failures are always catastrophic, especially on the downstream side, resulting in a colossal loss of life and property. Analyze the various causes of dam failures. Give two examples of large dam failures.

    Causes of Dam Failures

    Natural Factors

    Extreme Rainfall – Flooding causes 44% of dam failures in India (CWC). Eg- Tiware Dam breach in 2019

    Chungthang Dam in Sikkim was washed away in 2023 due to glacial lake outburst of South Lhonak Lake.

    Earthquakes cause cracks, foundation instability, or slope failure. Eg- liquefaction in the foundation of Chang Dam after Bhuj EQ (2001)

    Geological Weaknesses – Fault zones, weak rock strata, or unconsolidated foundations beneath dams.

    Climate Change – Increased frequency of high-intensity rainfall events beyond historical norms.

    Human Factors

    Faulty Design and Planning – Eg- Underestimation of Probable Maximum Flood (PMF).

    Aging – 1,065 large dams 50-100 years old, 224 are over a century old. Eg- safety concerns over ​​Mullaperiyar Dam (130 year old)

    Weak Regulatory Oversight – Eg- poor dam safety audits (CAG report).

    Poor maintenance and sedimentation – Eg- Around 3700 dams in India will lose 26% of the total storage by 2050 due to sedimentation (UN).

    Examples of dam failures

    Machhu dam disaster, 1979, in Morbi, Gujarat – 2,000 people died and 12,000 houses were destroyed.

    Banqiao Dam Failure, China (1975)

    Extreme rainfall from Typhoon Nina

    Cascade failure of multiple dams due to poor design

    Estimated 1,70,000 deaths (direct and indirect)

    Initiatives Taken for Dam Safety in India

    Dam Safety Act, 2021 – Statutory framework for surveillance, inspection, operation, and maintenance of dams.

    National Register of Large Dams (NRLD) complied and maintained by CWC.

    Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP) for rehabilitation of 736 dams across 19 States.

    Dam Health and Rehabilitation Monitoring Application (DHARMA)- application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in dam safety.

    Rigorous dam safety audits, climate-resilient design and real-time monitoring is essential to protect the ‘temples of modern India’

  • Why is the South-West monsoon called ‘Purvaiya’ (easterly) in Bhojpur Region? How has this directional seasonal wind system influenced the cultural ethos of the region?

    The Monsoon is a seasonal reversal of winds accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation. In India, it brings nearly 75% of annual rainfall, shaping agrarian, ecological, and cultural life.

    Bay of Bengal Branch branch monsoon winds hit the Purvanchal Himalayas and are deflected westward into the Ganga Plains.

    Coriolis Effect and Meghalaya Plateau help “turn” the southwestern winds into a westward-flowing stream before they reach Bhojpur.

    For the Bhojpur region, the moisture-laden winds arrive from the East/South-East.

    In Bhojpuri, the suffix ‘-aiya’ denotes “originating from”. Thus, winds from the East are called Purvaiya

    Influence of ‘Purvaiya’ on cultural ethos of Bhojpur Region

    Agrarian calendar structuring – Sowing of paddy linked to arrival of Purvaiya.

    Agrarian deities and rituals – Prayers for timely Purvaiya winds. Eg- Indra worship during drought conditions.

    Folk songs and oral traditions – Eg- Purvaiya is personified in Kajri songs as a messenger of love and longing for women waiting for their husbands.

    Emotional-cultural symbolism – Rain as metaphor for longing and reunion. Eg- Bhojpuri cinema and poetry portraying Purvaiya romantically.

    Festivals of Fertility- Hariyali Teej and Nag Panchami celebrate the rejuvenation of the earth brought by the moisture-laden Purvaiya.

    Architectural adaptation – Sloped roofs and raised plinths designed for heavy rainfall. Also, eastern-facing verandahs (Dalan) to catch the cooling breeze.

    Culinary patterns – Seasonal foods linked to rainy months. Eg- Consumption of saag, pakoras, and millets during monsoon.

    Traditional “Madhubani painting” also depicts purvailya frequently.

    Thus, Purvaiya highlights the deep interlinkage between climate and culture in the Indo-Gangetic plains.

  • Identify and discuss the factors responsible for diversity of natural vegetation in India. Assess the significance of wildlife sanctuaries in rain forests regions of India.

    India hosts one of the richest biodiversity profiles in the world, with about 8% of global biodiversity despite occupying only 2.4% of the world’s land area.

    Factors responsible for diversity of natural vegetation in India

    Latitudinal Extent-India’s spread from 8^4’N to 37^6’N means it spans tropical, subtropical, and temperate zones. Eg- Tropical evergreen forests in the south (Andaman Islands) versus temperate forests in the north (Himachal Pradesh).

    Variations in Precipitation-Eg- Lush rainforests in Mawsynram versus thorn and scrub vegetation in the Thar Desert.

    Altitudinal Zonation-Temperature decreases with height (Lapse Rate), leading to a vertical succession of vegetation types in mountainous regions. Eg- The Himalayas exhibit a transition from tropical deciduous at the foothills to alpine tundra at the peaks.

    Topographic Aspect-Eg- The windward side of the Western Ghats is covered in dense evergreen forests, while the leeward “rain-shadow” side has dry deciduous vegetation.

    Soil Diversity (Edaphic Factors)-Eg- Mangrove forests thrive in saline, marshy deltas, while Teak dominates the black soil of the Deccan Plateau.

    Duration of Sunlight (Photoperiod)-Eg- Faster tree growth is observed in the southern tropical regions compared to the northern high-latitude regions.

    Humidity Levels-Eg- The high humidity of the Malabar Coast allows for the growth of spices like pepper and cardamom.

    Significance of Wildlife Sanctuaries in Rainforest Regions

    Preservation of Endemic Species-Eg- Silent Valley Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala) protects the endangered Lion-tailed Macaque.

    Carbon Sequestration-These sanctuaries act as massive carbon sinks, vital for global climate regulation.

    Watershed Protection-Rainforests act as “biological sponges,” regulating the flow of major rivers.

    Genetic Reservoir-Eg- Wild varieties of black pepper and ginger are preserved in the rainforests of Karnataka.

    Many life-saving drugs are derived from rainforest flora protected within these zones. Eg- Species of Cinchona (quinine) in the Agasthyamalai region.

    Micro-Climate Regulation-Eg- The forests of the Northeast contribute to the high moisture levels required for regional tea plantations.

    Ecotourism and Livelihoods-Eg- Nature trails in Wayanad provide employment to local tribal communities.

    Soil Conservation-The multi-layered canopy prevents soil erosion in high-rainfall zones.

    Limitations of Wildlife Sanctuaries in Rainforest Regions

    Habitat Fragmentation due to infrastructure projects. Eg- The NH-766 passing through Bandipur-Wayanad disrupts the movement of elephants.

    Invasive Species-Eg- Lantana camara has significantly choked native undergrowth in many Western Ghats sanctuaries.

    Human-Wildlife Conflict-The proximity of settlements leads to frequent clashes.

    Illegal Poaching and Logging- Eg- Continued threats to Rosewood and Ebony trees in unmonitored forest patches.

    Climate Change Stress-Eg- Recent instances of unusual forest fires in the moist forests of Similipal.

    Resource Over-Extraction-Eg- Depletion of bamboo resources in the buffer zones of Kerala’s sanctuaries.

    Strengthening landscape-level conservation, community participation, and ecological management is essential to ensure long-term protection of these critical ecosystems.

  • Comment on the resource potentials of the long coastline of India and highlight the status of natural hazard preparedness in these areas.

    India’s coastline, extending approximately 7,517 km (with high-resolution mapping in 2026 citing nearly 11,100 km including islands), is the backbone of the nation’s Blue Economy.

    Natural Resource Potential of Indian Coastline

    Deep-Sea Mineral Wealth-The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) contains vast deposits of polymetallic nodules and crusts rich in cobalt, nickel, and manganese.

    Hydrocarbons-Offshore basins are a source of oil and gas. Eg- The Mumbai High and Krishna-Godavari (KG) Basin.

    Beach Sand Minerals-Eg- The Monazite and Ilmenite sands of Kerala and Odisha are critical for India’s nuclear energy and aerospace programs.

    Offshore Renewable Energy-The wind speeds along the western and southern coasts offer a potential of over 70 GW for offshore wind energy. Eg- Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.

    Tidal and Wave Energy-Eg- The Gulf of Khambhat and Gulf of Kutch.

    Salt Production-India is the 3rd largest salt producer globally, with coastal topography favoring extensive salt pans.

    Marine Biotechnology (Blue Carbon)-Coastal ecosystems like mangroves and seagrass act as carbon sinks and sources of bioactive compounds.

    Coastal Tourism – Eg- Goa beaches and Kerala backwaters.

    Mangroves and Coastal Ecosystems – Support fisheries, carbon sequestration and shoreline protection. Eg- Sundarbans mangrove forests.

    Status of Natural Hazard Preparedness

    Advanced Early Warning Systems (EWS)-Eg- The IMD’s latest models in 2026 provide hyper-local cyclone alerts with a lead time of 5-7 days.

    The Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC) at INCOIS provides real-time alerts to the entire Indian Ocean region. Over 100 coastal villages in Odisha have now achieved UNESCO’s “Tsunami Ready” certification.

    Bio-Shield Protection-Eg- The MISHTI Scheme (2023-27) has successfully restored nearly 3,000 hectares of mangroves along the East Coast.

    Hazard Line Demarcation-The Survey of India (SOI) has integrated this line into the updated Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMP) for all maritime states.

    Last-Mile Connectivity-Eg- The NavIC-based GAGAN system provides emergency alerts to deep-sea fishermen even beyond cellular range.

    Integrated coastal zone management and Coastal regulation zones to regulate development activities.

    Cyclone-resistant infrastructure – Eg- Multipurpose cyclone shelters in Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.

    Challenges

    Nearly 33% of India’s coastline is experiencing active erosion

    Sea-Level Rise (SLR) threatens to submerge low-lying deltas and “sinking” cities. Eg- Mumbai.

    Pollution and Eutrophication-Runoff from coastal cities and farms creates “dead zones” in the ocean.

    Lack of last mile connectivity

    Increasing frequency and intensity of Cyclones.

    Way Forward

    Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZMP)-Focus on holistic “Ridge-to-Reef” planning rather than localized seawalls.

    Innovative Financing-Eg- Parametric Insurance for faster post-disaster recovery.

    Green Port Transition-Incentivize the “Harit Sagar” guidelines to reduce the carbon footprint of maritime trade.

    Blue Carbon Economy-Eg- Integrating MISHTI scheme outcomes with the National Carbon Market (NCM).

    Mandatory enforcement of the National Building Code (2016) for all new coastal constructions.

    Technology-Led Monitoring-Use AI, IoT sensors, and drones for 24/7 surveillance of the “Hazard Line.”

    These measures are essential to ensure that India’s vast coastline becomes a source of long-term prosperity rather than vulnerability.

  • How are the fjords formed? Why do they constitute some of the most picturesque areas of the world?

    A fjord is a long, narrow, and deep sea inlet with steep cliffed sides, formed due to glacial erosion and subsequent marine submergence.

    Formation of fjords

    Glacial Erosion of Pre-existing River Valleys

    During the Ice Age, valley glaciers occupied pre-existing river valleys.

    Through processes like plucking and abrasion, glaciers deepened and widened these valleys.

    This produced a characteristic U-shaped glacial trough with very steep sides.

    Overdeepening of the Valley Floor

    Glaciers erode the central part more intensely due to greater ice thickness.

    This creates basins that are often deeper than the adjoining sea.

    Reduced erosion near the glacier’s snout leaves a shallow entrance (threshold or sill).

    After the melting of glaciers, sea level rose and drowned the glacial trough. Seawater filled the valley forming a fjord.

    Fjords are among the most picturesque landscapes due to

    Steep and Towering Cliffs rising dramatically from the water attract adventure tourists. Eg- Sognefjord (Norway).

    Deep, narrow inlets create a mirror-like water surface. This enhances visual beauty through reflection of peaks and clouds

    Tributary glaciers form hanging valleys. After glaciation, these become spectacular waterfalls. Eg- Milford Sound (New Zealand).

    Vibrant Contrasts- The deep blue cold, oxygen-rich water provides a sharp color contrast against the dark granite rocks and white snow on the summits.

    Indented Coastline creates numerous bays, islands, and peninsulas, giving a highly irregular and scenic coast.

    Fjords have their own sheltered micro-climates, allowing for blossoms or orchards at the base of snowy mountains

    Unique Light and Climatic Effects – High latitude locations produce long daylight hours, auroras, and misty environments.

    Fjords represent classic glacio-fluvial and marine interaction. They also serve as important centres for tourism, fisheries, and human settlement.

    Economic geography

  • Discuss the consequences of climate change on the food security in tropical countries.

    Food security refers to a situation where all people at all times have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food (FAO).

    According to the 2025 Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC), over 295 million people faced acute hunger last year, with climate extremes being a primary driver.

    Consequences of climate change on food security in tropical countries

    Decline in Crop Yields – Eg- rice and wheat yields in South Asia may decline by 10-20% by 2050 due to warming.

    Increased Frequency of Droughts affects rain-fed agriculture. Eg- Horn of Africa droughts have caused repeated crop failures and food shortages.

    Extreme Weather Events – Damage to crops and agricultural infrastructure. Eg- flood damage to paddy fields in Bangladesh.

    Heat Stress on Crops reduce photosynthesis and crop growth. Eg- Maize yields in tropical Africa and Latin America are projected to decline by up to 24% by 2030 if current warming trends persist.

    Decline in Fisheries – Eg- Tropical reef-based fisheries in Indonesia and the Philippines have seen a 20% decline in catch potential since 2020 due to coral bleaching.

    Spread of Crop Pests and Diseases – Warmer climates favour pest outbreaks. Eg- 2025-26 Locust swarms in the Horn of Africa and South Asia have devastated over 200,000 hectares of farmland.

    Loss of Arable Land due to sea-level rise and salinisation. Eg- saltwater intrusion in Vietnam’s Mekong Delta impacting rice paddies.

    Reduced Nutritional Quality of Crops – Elevated CO₂ may reduce nutrient content in staples. Eg- declining protein and micronutrient levels in rice and wheat.

    Livestock Productivity Decline – Heat stress affects animal health and milk production.

    Food Price Volatility and Poverty – Climate shocks disrupt supply chains and raise food prices.

    Heatwaves are disrupting the synchronization between flowering plants and their pollinators. Eg- decline in native bee populations in Brazil impacting the yields of high-value tropical fruits and nuts.

    Soil Degradation and Erosion-Intense tropical storms strip away the nutrient-rich topsoil (humus), leading to long-term infertility.

    Way Forward

    Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)- Promoting integrated systems that increase productivity and resilience while reducing emissions.

    Diversification of Cropping Systems – Promoting millets, pulses and climate-resilient crops.

    Development of Heat-Tolerant Varieties- Investing in “Scuba Rice” (flood-tolerant) and drought-resistant C4 crops like millets and sorghum.

    Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR)- Implementing “Sponge Farm” techniques to capture monsoon runoff and recharge groundwater for dry spells.

    Agroforestry and Intercropping- Planting nitrogen-fixing trees alongside crops to provide shade, improve soil moisture, and diversify income.

    Strengthening Cold Chains- Investing in solar-powered refrigerated storage and hermetic bags to reduce post-harvest spoilage.

    Promoting Crop Insurance- Scaling up “Weather-Index Based Insurance” to protect farmers against total financial collapse after a climate disaster.

    Circular Food Systems- Reducing food waste and converting agricultural by-products into biogas or organic fertilizers.

    International Climate Finance- Ensuring that the Loss and Damage Fund (operationalized at COP28/29) is accessible to tropical nations for rebuilding food systems.

    Tropical countries are the “frontline states” in the war against climate-induced hunger. A global commitment to limit warming to 1.5^ C and a radical shift from “exploitative” to “regenerative” food systems is needed.

  • Why is the world today confronted with a crisis of availability of and access to freshwater resources?

    In January 2026, United Nations scientists formally declared the dawn of an “Era of Global Water Bankruptcy,” signaling that the world has exceeded its renewable hydrological limits.

    Reasons for the Crisis of Availability

    Limited availability of freshwater – only 2% of global water resources are freshwater. 87% stored in glaciers.

    Melting “Water Towers”-Eg- low-latitude mountain ranges have lost over 30% of their glacier mass since 1970, threatening the perennial flow of rivers like the Indus and Yangtze.

    Hydrological Volatility-Climate change has intensified the water cycle, leading to “flash droughts” and “extreme precipitation.”

    Chronic Groundwater Over-extraction-Agriculture and industry are “mining” water faster than the earth can replenish it.

    Water Quality Degradation-Over 80% of global wastewater is discharged into the environment untreated, contaminating remaining freshwater sources.

    Deforestation and land degradation – Eg- Forested watersheds have lost up to 22% of their cover in the last 15 years, leading to increased sedimentation in reservoirs and reduced groundwater seepage.

    Reasons for the Crisis of Access

    Infrastructural Disrepair-aging or non-existent pipes and treatment plants limit access.

    Lack of funding for water distribution infrastructure. Eg- Democratic Republic of Congo possesses 50% of Africa’s water but has a very low rate of per-capita access to potable water.

    Urban-Rural Inequality-Infrastructure investment is disproportionately centered in affluent urban hubs, leaving rural areas behind.

    Rapid, Unplanned Urbanization-Growth in “megacities” has outpaced the expansion of utility networks. Eg- day zero in Chennai and Banglore

    Institutional Failure & Corruption-Mismanagement of water utilities leads to high costs and unreliable service. Eg- tanker mafia in Pune

    To reverse the “global water bankruptcy,” the way forward must include-

    Water-Smart Agriculture-Transitioning to drip irrigation and drought-resistant crops (like millets).

    Circular Water Economy-Mandatory recycling of industrial and municipal wastewater to “close the loop.”

    Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR)-Investing in “Sponge Cities” and artificial recharge

    Universal Water Governance-international treaty to protect transboundary basins.

  • Flooding in urban areas is an emerging climate-induced disaster. Discuss the causes of this disaster. Mention the features of two such major floods in the last two decades in India. Describe the policies and frameworks in India that aim at tackling such floods.

    Recently, heavy pre-monsoon thundershowers in Bengaluru led to severe Floods. Unlike riverine floods, urban floods are highly localised, rapid-onset, and short-duration, but cause disproportionately high economic and infrastructural damage.

    Causes of urban flooding

    Natural causes

    Natural meteorological phenomena like cyclones, cloud bursts. Eg- Cyclone Tauktae in Mumbai.

    Climate Change – Increase in short-duration, high-intensity rainfall events. Eg- In 2005 Mumbai witnessed 37 inches of rainfall in only 24 hours.

    Sea level rise: by 2050, Mumbai will witness a 25% increase in the intensity of flash floods accompanied by a half-meter rise in the sea level (McKinsey India report)

    Topography: Many Indian cities are located in floodplains or low-lying coastal zones. Eg- Mumbai on the Konkan coast, Kolkata in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.

    Anthropogenic causes

    Inadequate Stormwater Drainage Infrastructure – Old, undersized, and poorly maintained drainage networks. Eg- Mumbai’s British-era drainage

    Poor urban planning and encroachment on wetlands

    Bengaluru has lost 80% of its lakes

    Chennai has lost 85% of its wetlands. (WWF)

    Concretisation – Expansion of concrete roads, pavements, and buildings reducing infiltration.

    Unregulated dumping of solid waste blocks drains, and stormwater systems

    Deforestation reduces the land’s ability to absorb water, causing rapid runoff into urban areas.

    Weak Enforcement – Lack of floodplain zoning and non-compliance with building regulations.

    Sudden release of water from dams and lakes – Eg- Pune Floods due to Opening of Khadakwasla dam.

    Illegal river sand mining reduces the water retention capacity of the waterbody, increasing the speed and scale of stormwater flow. Eg- Cauvery River bed, Tamil Nadu.

    Two major urban floods in the last two decades in India

    Mumbai Floods – 2005

    Trigger – Extremely heavy rainfall (~944 mm in 24 hours)

    Key Features

    Complete failure of stormwater drainage system.

    Severe flooding along the Mithi River floodplain due to encroachment.

    Massive disruption of transport, power supply, and economic activity.

    Exposed vulnerability of coastal megacities to extreme rainfall.

    Chennai Floods – 2015

    Trigger – Intense northeast monsoon rainfall

    Key Features

    Encroachment of wetlands like Pallikaranai marsh.

    Poor coordination in reservoir water release aggravated flooding.

    Prolonged waterlogging in residential and industrial zones.

    Policies and Frameworks in India to Tackle Urban Flooding

    NDMA Guidelines on Urban Flooding (2010) – Recommend city-specific urban flood management plans.

    National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016 – Integrates urban flood risk reduction within disaster preparedness and mitigation.

    Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) – Investment in stormwater drainage, sewerage, and water infrastructure.

    Smart Cities Mission – Use of GIS mapping, real-time sensors, and flood monitoring systems.

    Early Warning Systems – IMD and CWC providing impact-based rainfall forecasts.

    Protection of wetlands under Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules.

    Model Building Bye Laws by MoHUA – all buildings having a plot size of 100 sq.m. or, more shall mandatorily include the complete proposal of rainwater harvesting.

    MoHUA has issued Standard Operating Procedures (SoPs) on Urban Flooding in 2017 and published manual on Storm Water Drainage Systems in 2019

    As per NITI aayog, over 40% of India’s population will reside in urban areas by 2030. Thus, flood resilient urban future is essential for Viksit Bharat @2047

    Internal Security

    LWE and N-E insurgency

  • What is disaster resilience? How is it determined? Describe various elements of a resilience framework. Also mention the global targets of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030).

    As per Hyogo Framework of Action, Disaster resilience refers to the ability of individuals, communities, systems, and nations to anticipate, absorb, adapt to, and recover from the impacts of hazards while retaining essential functions.

    Determination of disaster resilience

    Exposure to Hazard – Settlements on riverbanks or seismic zones are more vulnerable. Eg- Joshimath (Uttarakhand)

    Adaptive or Coping Capacity – Ability to anticipate, respond, absorb and recover from a disaster. Eg- Japan’s high adaptive capacity to earthquakes

    Socio-economic Conditions – Poverty, marginalisation and inequity increase susceptibility to harm. Eg- Disaster induced migration

    Governance and Institutional Readiness– Eg- Singapore’s Integrated crisis management agency (SCDF)

    Environmental resilience increases or reduces hazard impact. Eg- ‘Day Zero’ in Chennai due to wetland encroachment.

    Social Networks and Support Systems: – Communities with strong social cohesion, community organizations, and support networks are more resilient to respond to and recover from disasters.

    Health status and access to healthcare services – Eg- Elderly and Children are less resilient to post disaster illness

    Elements of a Disaster Resilience Framework

    Risk Knowledge – Hazard mapping, vulnerability analysis, and risk assessments to understand who is at risk and why. Eg-GIS-based flood and landslide susceptibility maps.

    Early Warning Systems– Eg-IMD’s cyclone early-warning system reduces mortality drastically.

    Preventive Measures – Nature-based solutions, resilient infrastructure, land-use planning, seismic codes, floodplain zoning. Eg-Mangrove restoration under MISHTI.

    Preparedness & Response Capacity – Training volunteers, conducting mock drills, strengthening NDRF/SDRF capacities. Eg-Aapda Mitra programme in 350+ districts.

    Institutional ‘capacity building’ – Strong governance, coordination between NDMA, SDMA, district authorities, and urban bodies.

    Recovery, Rehabilitation & “Build Back Better” – stronger housing, better planning, safer infrastructure. Eg- Japan’s Post-2011 Tōhoku Earthquake & Tsunami Reconstruction

    Social & Community Resilience – Inclusive decision-making, empowering women, local groups, and indigenous knowledge systems.

    Financial Resilience – Insurance, disaster funds (NDRF/SDRF), parametric insurance, contingency financing.

    Global Targets of the Sendai Framework (2015-2030)

    Reduce Global Disaster Mortality – Substantial reduction by 2030 compared to 2005-2015 baseline.

    Reduce Number of Affected People – Significant decrease in people injured, displaced, or needing basic services during disasters.

    Reduce Economic Losses – Lower global disaster-related economic losses relative to global GDP.

    Reduce Damage to Critical Infrastructure – Protect health facilities, water systems, schools, and public infrastructure.

    Increase Number of Countries with DRR Strategies – All nations to develop national and local disaster risk reduction strategies.

    Enhance International Cooperation – Increase support from developed to developing countries for capacity-building, technology, and finance.

    Ensure multi-hazard early warning systems and accessible risk information for everyone.

    Priorities for Action

    Understanding disaster risk in all its dimensions

    Strengthening disaster risk governance

    Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience

    Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to Build Back Better

    The Sendai Framework’s proactive approach is essential for making Bharat a ‘weather-ready and climate-smart’ nation.