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Subject: History

  • Hon’ble President confers Padma Awards, 2025

    Why in the News?

    Padma Awards 2025 recognised 139 individuals for their exceptional contributions across various fields. Notable awardees include actor S. Ajith Kumar, singer Pankaj Udhas, and cricketer Ravichandran Ashwin.

    About Padma Awards:

    • The Padma Awards are among India’s most prestigious civilian honors, announced annually on Republic Day’s eve.
    • These awards recognize outstanding achievements in various fields, particularly public service.
    • The GoI introduced the Bharat Ratna and Padma Vibhushan in 1954, with the three classes (Pahela Varg, Dusra Varg, and Tisra Varg) renamed in 1955 as Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri.
    • The awards are not titles and cannot be used as prefixes or suffixes to names.
    • The number of awards given annually is capped at 120 (excluding posthumous awards and awards to NRIs/foreigners/OCIs).

    Award Categories:

    1. Padma Vibhushan: For ‘exceptional and distinguished service.’
    2. Padma Bhushan: For ‘distinguished service of a high order.’
    3. Padma Shri: For ‘distinguished service.’

    Eligibility and Nomination:

    • Nominations are reviewed by the Padma Awards Committee, formed annually by the Prime Minister, with final approval from the President.
    • Eligibility Criteria:
      • Open to all individuals, regardless of race, occupation, position, or gender.
      • Government employees, except doctors and scientists, are generally ineligible.
      • Awards are generally not given posthumously, with exceptions in extraordinary cases.
      • A recipient can be considered for a higher category only after five years since their last Padma award.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements in respect of Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards:

    1. Bharat Ratna and Padma Awards are titles under Article 18(1) of the Constitution of India.

    2. Padma Awards, which were instituted in the year 1954, were suspended only once.

    3. The number of Bharat Ratna Awards is restricted to a maximum of five in a particular year.

    Which of the above statements are not correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3*

     

  • Taliban to revive Bamiyan Buddha

    Why in the News?

    Two decades since the demolition of Bamiyan Buddha, the Afghan Taliban are now convinced to restore it.

    Taliban to revive Bamiyan Buddha

    About Bamiyan Buddha:

    • The Bamiyan Buddhas were located in the Bamiyan Valley, Afghanistan, about 130 km northwest of Kabul.
    • The Western Buddha (Salsal) stood 55 meters tall, and the Eastern Buddha (Shah Mama) stood 38 meters tall, making them two of the largest standing Buddha statues in the world before their destruction.
    • Construction:
      • Built around 600 CE during the rule of the Hephthalites.
      • Carved directly into sandstone cliffs with features made from mud and straw, and painted with bright colors, including carmine red for the larger Buddha.
      • The style blends Greco-Buddhist art, Sasanian Persia, and Byzantine Empire influences.
    • Historical Significance:
      • Represented Vairocana and Sakyamuni (Gautama Buddha).
      • Served as a major Buddhist religious centre along the Silk Road, hosting monasteries and playing a crucial role in religion, philosophy, and art.
      • Survived invasions, including by Genghis Khan (1221 AD) and Aurangzeb (17th Century).
    • In 2001, the Taliban destroyed the statues. The Buddhas had previously survived multiple attacks.
    • The site is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site due to its immense historical, religious, and cultural significance.
    [UPSC 2014] Which of the following Kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha?

    1. Avanti 2. Gandhara 3. Kosala 4. Magadha

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 3 and 4 only * (d) 1, 3 and 4 only

     

  • Bhagavad Gita and Natyashastra included in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register

    Why in the News?

    Bhagavad Gita and Bharata’s Natyashastra manuscripts has been included in UNESCO’s prestigious Memory of the World Register.

    About UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register:

    • Launched in 1992, UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme preserves and promotes documentary heritage of global significance.
    • It safeguards humanity’s documentary heritage, ensuring materials are accessible for future generations.

    About the Bhagavad Gita and Natyashastra:

    • Bhagavad Gita:
      • Traditionally attributed to sage Vyasa, the Bhagavad Gita is a 700-verse scripture in the Mahabharata.
      • It presents a dialogue between Arjuna and his charioteer, Lord Krishna, discussing duty, righteousness, and spirituality.
      • The Gita synthesizes various Indian philosophical traditions, including Vedic, Buddhist, Jain, and Charvaka.
      • The text is dated to the first or second century BCE, with oral compositions transcribed later.
    • Natyashastra:
      • Attributed to sage Bharata, the Natyashastra defines the rules of performing arts such as drama, music, and dance.
      • It introduces Rasa (aesthetic experience), a key concept in Indian theatre.
      • The treatise consists of 36,000 verses and was codified around the 2nd century BCE, continuing to influence performing arts today.

    India’s Earlier Entries to the Memory of the World Register

    • Ramcharitmanas, Panchatantra, Sahṛdayaloka-Locana (2024): Important literary and cultural texts in India’s storytelling tradition.
    • Abhinavagupta’s Works (2023): Significant contributions to Shaiva philosophy and mysticism.
    • NAM Archives (2023): Archives from the 1961 Non-Aligned Movement summit, reflecting India’s role in diplomacy.
    • Rig Veda (2005): One of the oldest texts, foundational in Indian spirituality.
    • Dutch East India Company Archives (2003): Reflecting colonial history.

     

    [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following is a work attributed to playwright Bhāsa?

    Options: (a) Kavyaalankara (b) Natyashasta (c) Madhyama-vyoga* (d) Mahabhashya

     

  • Kailash Mansarovar Yatra to resume soon

    Kailash Mansarovar Yatra to resume soon

    Why in the News?

    The Kailash Mansarovar Yatra, a significant religious pilgrimage for Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Bon followers, is set to resume after a halt since 2020.

    About Kailash Mountain and Kailash Mansarovar Yatra

    • Kailash Mountain is situated in the Tibetan Autonomous Region (TAR) of China, near India and Nepal, standing at 6,638 meters (21,778 feet).
    • Religious Significance:
      • Hinduism: Abode of Lord Shiva and Parvati, believed to bring moksha (liberation).
      • Buddhism: Home of Buddha Demchok, symbolizing bliss.
      • Jainism: Lord Rishabhanatha attained Nirvana here.
      • Bon Religion: Center of the universe in Bon faith.
    • Mansarovar Yatra is the pilgrimage to Mount Kailash and Mansarovar Lake at 4,556 meters (14,950 feet).
    • This lake is believed to be created by Lord Brahma, bathing here is believed to cleanse sins.
    • The Yatra is managed by India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) for Indian pilgrims.
    Places in News: Kailash Mansarovar
    Copyright infringement not intended.

    Routes to Kailash Mansarovar

    • Lipulekh Pass: Located at 5,115 meters, this route is 200 km of trekking and has been suspended since 2020 due to geopolitical tensions.
    • Nathu La Pass: Positioned at 4,310 meters, this 1,500 km motorable route requires 35-40 km of trekking. It has been operational since 2015.
    • Nepal Route: Available since 2023, this route is managed by private operators, with challenges related to visa and permit requirements.
    [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?

    (a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La

     

  • Who was Sir Sankaran Nair (1857-1934)?

    Why in the News?

    PM recently remembered Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair, a nationalist and jurist who famously fought a courtroom battle against British officials involved in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919.

    Nair’s stand in the courtroom is now a subject of a forthcoming film, Kesari Chapter 2.

    Who was Sir Sankaran Nair (1857-1934)?

    About Sir Sankaran Nair:

    • Born in 1857 in Mankara village, Kerala, Nair came from an aristocratic family.
    • He was educated at Presidency College in Madras and pursued a law degree.
    • Nair began his legal career with Sir Horatio Shepherd, Chief Justice of Madras High Court.
    • In 1897, Nair became the youngest president of the Indian National Congress (Amravati (Mh) Session) and was appointed as a permanent judge of the Madras High Court in 1908.

    Role in the Jallianwala Bagh Case:

    • Nair challenged Michael O’Dwyer, the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, for his role in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), accusing him of following policies that led to the massacre.
    • O’Dwyer sued Nair in England for defamation. Despite biased British courts, Nair refused to apologize, even when O’Dwyer offered to forgo the £500 penalty.
    • The trial highlighted the bias in the British judicial system and fuelled Indian resentment against British rule.

    Other Contributions:

    • Nair made progressive rulings, like supporting inter-caste and inter-religious marriages and ruling against treating converts to Hinduism as outcasts.
    • He supported India’s self-government and played a key role in expanding the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms (1919).
    • In 1922, Nair critiqued Gandhi‘s methods in his work “Gandhi and Anarchy”.
    • He helped draft the 1919 constitutional reforms, pointing out flaws in British rule, with many of his suggestions accepted.
    [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following aroused a wave of popular indignation that led to the massacre by the British at Jallianwala Bagh?

    (a) The Arms Act (b) The Public Safety Act (c) The Rowlatt Act (d) The Vernacular Press Act

     

  • Who was Mahatma Jyotiba Phule (1827-1890)?

    Why in the News?

    On April 11, 2025, the Prime Minister paid tribute to Mahatma Jyotiba Phule on his 199th birth anniversary.

    Who was Jyotiba Phule (1827-1890)?

    About Mahatma Phule

    • Jyotirao Govindrao Phule, born on April 11, 1827, near Pune, was from the Mali caste.
    • His father was a vegetable vendor, and his mother died when he was young.
    • He pursued education at the Scottish Mission High School in Pune despite caste-based discrimination.
    • He was inspired by Western thinkers like Thomas Paine and John Stuart Mill, fuelling his social justice dedication.
    • At 13, he married Savitribai Phule, who became his partner in social reforms, particularly promoting education for women and marginalized communities.

    His Contributions as a Social Reformer:

    Educational Reforms:

    • In 1848, Phule and his wife established India’s first girls’ school in Pune.
    • He focused on educating Dalits and lower-caste groups, traditionally excluded from education.
    • He founded night schools for working-class individuals, especially women.

    Fighting Caste Discrimination:

    • Phule criticized the caste system, calling it a means of oppression.
    • In 1873, Phule’s book Gulamgiri condemned caste discrimination, comparing Dalits’ plight to slavery.
    • Phule coined the term ‘Dalit’ to describe those outside the caste system.

    Women’s Welfare and Empowerment:

    • Phule advocated for widow remarriage and provided a dignified life for widows.
    • In 1863, he opened homes to help pregnant widows.
    • He co-founded an infanticide prevention center, tackling the killing of female infants.

    Social Justice and Equality:

    • Phule founded Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 to promote social equality, rational thinking, and religious reform.
    • The Samaj rejected idolatry and supported a more rational spiritual approach.
    • He broke the social stigma of untouchability by opening his house and water-well to the oppressed.

    Religious and Philosophical Contributions:

    • Phule was an advocate for critical thinking of religion, rejecting superstition and blind faith.
    • He believed in equality and justice across religions and cultures.
    • He was influenced by Bhakti saints like Sant Kabir and Sant Tukaram in his fight against social oppression.

    His Literary Contributions:

    • Gulamgiri (Slavery) (1873): Critiqued the caste system and called for Dalit liberation.
    • Shetkaryacha Asud (Farmer’s Whip) (1881): Addressed the exploitation of farmers and advocated for land reforms.
    • Sarvajanik Satya Dharma Poostak: Promoted rationalist thought and social justice.
    • Tritiya Ratna (1855): A significant work in advocating for social equality.
    • Brahmananche Kasab (1869): Criticized the exploitation by the Brahmin class.
    • Powada: Chatrapati Shivajiraje Bhosle Yancha (1869): A work celebrating the legacy of Shivaji Maharaj.
    • Satsar Ank (1885): Another rationalist work addressing societal issues.
    • Akhandadi Kavyarachana: A literary contribution reflecting Phule’s thoughts on social justice.
    [UPSC 2016] Satya Shodhak Samaj organized:

    (a) a movement for the upliftment of tribals in Bihar’

    (b) a temple-entry movement in Gujarat

    (c) an anti-caste movement in Maharashtra

    (d) a peasant movement in Punjab

     

  • Navkar Mahamantra Divas

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister has inaugurated and participated in Navkar Mahamantra Divas at Vigyan Bhawan, New Delhi.

    What is Vishwa Navkar Mahamantra Divas?

    • The event is observed annually on April 9 to promote peace, non-violence, and spiritual harmony globally by chanting the Navkar Mantra collectively.
    • The mantra venerates the 5 supreme beings:
      1. Arihants: Represent those who have attained “Keval Gyan” (perfect knowledge) and guide “Bhavya Jeevas” (souls destined for liberation). They possess twelve divine qualities.
      2. Siddhas: Those who have eradicated all karmas and attained Moksha. They are endowed with eight pure qualities.
      3. Acharyas: The leaders who follow Mahavrat and guide others on the spiritual path. They embody 36 virtues.
      4. Upadhyayas: Scholars who impart knowledge related to the path to Moksha, with 25 virtues.
      5. Sadhus: Renunciants who refine themselves through penance, with 27 significant qualities.

    Key Jain Principles Associated:

    • Ahimsa (Non-Violence): The Navkar Mantra embodies the principle of Ahimsa, advocating for peace and harmony by acknowledging the interconnectedness of all life forms, thus promoting Maitri (friendliness) towards all beings.
    • Anekantavada (Non-Absolutism) and Syadvada: This principle promotes appreciating diverse perspectives and truths, which was emphasized as a solution to global challenges like terrorism and environmental degradation, reflecting the Jain concept of Syadvada (conditional truth).
    • Tapas (Self-Discipline) and Vairagya (Detachment): The mantra is seen as a spiritual tool for self-realization, mental stability, and fostering inner peace, encouraging Tapas and Vairagya as means to achieve spiritual growth.
    • Samyak Darshana (Right Faith) and Samyak Jnana (Right Knowledge): The teachings of the Navkar Mantra were connected to building a developed India rooted in heritage while embracing progress without losing cultural values, emphasizing the importance of Samyak Darshana and Samyak Jnana.
    • Svadhyaya (Self-Study) and Sadhana (Spiritual Practice): The mantra encourages self-discipline and truth as guiding principles for personal growth and societal harmony, promoting Svadhyaya and Sadhana as essential practices.
    [UPSC 2011] The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained by:

    (a) Universal Law (b) Universal Truth (c) Universal Faith (d) Universal Soul

     

  • PM Modi at Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi

    Why in the News?

    PM Narendra Modi recently visited the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi temple in the historic city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.

    About the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi Tree

    • The Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree is considered the oldest living cultivated plant globally.
    • It is believed to have grown from a branch of the original Bodhi Vruksha in Bodhgaya under which Gautam Buddha attained enlightenment.
      • This branch was carried to Sri Lanka by Sanghamitra, eldest daughter of Emperor Ashoka and his first wife, Queen Devi.
      • The original tree under which Buddha meditated was reportedly destroyed, possibly by Ashoka’s wife Tishyarakshita in some legends.
    • Sanghamitra’s arrival in Sri Lanka with the tree is commemorated during the Uduvapa Poya, a festival observed annually on a full moon night in December.

    Legend of Sanghamitra’s Journey to Sri Lanka

    • Sanghamitra, originally named Ayapali, lived from 282 BC to 203 BC.
    • Following the Third Buddhist Council (held in 250 BC in Pataliputra) during Ashoka’s reign, it was decided to send missionaries to various regions, including Sri Lanka, to spread Buddhism.
    • The mission to Sri Lanka was led by Mahinda (Mahendra), Ashoka’s son, who converted King Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura to Buddhism.
    • After several royal ladies expressed interest in joining the Buddhist monastic order, Mahinda sent for his sister, Sanghamitra, to initiate them.
      • Both siblings lived in Anuradhapura for the rest of their lives.
    • She played a pivotal role in establishing the Order of Nuns (Bhikkhuni Sangha or Meheini Sasna) in Sri Lanka, which later spread to other Theravada Buddhist countries like Burma, China, and Thailand.
    [UPSC 2020] With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:

    1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism. 2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism. 3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana Buddhism.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Ramakien Murals of the Grand Palace of Bangkok

    Why in the News?

    The Prime Minister has highlighted the release of iStamp depicting Ramakien mural paintings by Thai Government.

    Ramakien mural

    About the Ramakien Murals:

    • The murals were first painted in 1783 during the reign of King Rama I, who commissioned the adaptation of the Indian epic Ramayana into the Thai version called the Ramakien.
      • The Ramakien holds a vital role in Thai culture, influencing literature, dance, and art, and the murals serve as a visual representation of this national epic.
    • The murals are predominantly displayed in the Wat Phra Kaew (Temple of the Emerald Buddha) in the Grand Palace complex, Bangkok.
    • It illustrates episodes from the Ramakien, highlighting the eternal battle between good and evil.
    • It is located in the Phra Rabiang gallery, a two-kilometer corridor surrounding the temple, with 178 panels depicting scenes from the epic.

    India-Thailand Cultural Connect

    Historical and Cultural Ties:

    • Thailand, part of the Suvarnabhumi territory, is mentioned in the Ramayana.
    • Ancient trade links with South India, and kingdoms like Dvaravati and Khmer had strong ties with India.
    • Brahmanism coexisted with Buddhism, and Thai worship includes Indian deities like Ganesha, Shiva, and Vishnu.
      • Emperor Ashoka sent Buddhist missionaries to Thailand in the 3rd century BCE, deeply influencing Thai culture and religion.
    • The Thai language includes Sanskrit and Pali words, while Thai art and architecture exhibit Indian influences, particularly in temples.
    • Association with Lord Rama:
      • The Ramakien, the Thai version of the Ramayana, is central to Thai culture, with murals depicting episodes in temples.
      • The title Rama has been adopted by all the monarchs of Thailand’s Chakri Dynasty, which began with King Rama I in 1782.
      • Ayutthaya city was the capital of the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–1767) in present-day Thailand, and it is thought that the name is derived from the Indian city of Ayodhya.

    Modern Diplomatic and Cultural Relations:

    • Diplomatic Ties were established in 1947, the two countries celebrated 75 years of relations in 2022.
    • Thai-Bharat Cultural Lodge (1940) promotes educational and cultural exchanges. Thai citizens visit India for religious and cultural purposes, especially Buddhist sites.

    Recent Initiatives:

    • Exhibitions like “Indo-Siam Connect” showcase shared heritage.
    • Joint research and academic exchanges continue to deepen mutual understanding.

     

    [UPSC 2010] There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta Caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?

    (a) Bagh Caves (b) Ellora Caves (c) Lomas Rishi caves (d) Nasik Caves

     

  • PM gifted with a copy of Tripitaka by Thai PM

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister was presented with ‘The World Tipitaka: Sajjhaya Phonetic Edition’ by his Thai counterpart, Paetongtarn Shinawatra, in a diplomatic exchange.

    About Tripitaka

    • The Tripitaka, also known as the Pali Canon or Tipitaka, is the primary scripture of Theravada Buddhism, containing the teachings attributed to Buddha.
    • It was initially preserved through oral tradition and recited by Buddhist monks after the Buddha’s death.
    • It was first written down in the 1st century BCE during the reign of King Vattagamani of Sri Lanka, ensuring its preservation for future generations.
    • It is central to Theravada Buddhism, which is practiced mainly in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos.
    • It is also regarded as an authoritative collection of the Buddha’s words, influencing the practices of Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhists.
    • Its teachings cover practical aspects of morality (sila), meditation (samadhi), and wisdom (prajna), guiding followers towards nirvana (enlightenment).
    • It is composed of 3 major sections, each known as a “basket” (Pitaka), containing rules, discourses, and doctrinal analyses:
    Focus Key Components Key Teachings

    Vinaya Pitaka

    		 Governs the rules and regulations for the monastic community (Sangha), focusing on the conduct of monks and nuns. • Suttavibhanga: The primary text detailing the rules for monks and nuns, including disciplinary measures.

    • Khandhaka: A collection of regulations governing the monastic community’s daily life, organizational structure, and interactions.

    • Parivara: A summary and analysis of the rules and their interpretations.

    • Discusses issues related to ordination, monastic vows, and the ethical conduct of monks and nuns.

    		 • Establishes a structured framework for maintaining the monastic order.

    • Focus on ethical behavior, discipline, and the proper conduct necessary for spiritual growth.

    • Importance of the community and the harmonious living of monks and nuns.

    Sutta Pitaka

    		 Contains the discourses delivered by the Buddha, covering various topics like morality, meditation, and wisdom. • Digha Nikaya: The long discourses of the Buddha, including topics on ethics, meditation, and cosmology.

    • Majjhima Nikaya: Middle-length discourses, often addressing common people and their concerns, focusing on practical aspects of the Buddha’s teachings.

    • Samyutta Nikaya: Connected discourses grouped by topics like impermanence, suffering, and dependent origination.

    • Anguttara Nikaya: A collection of numerical discourses, categorized by numbers (e.g., 3, 4, 5), addressing practical guidelines for daily living.

    • Khuddaka Nikaya: A minor collection of texts, including the Dhammapada, Jataka tales (stories of the Buddha’s past lives), Therigatha, and others.

    		 • Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path as central teachings for achieving liberation from suffering.

    • Instructions on ethical living, mental cultivation, and the development of wisdom.

    • Stories of the Buddha’s past lives, which serve to teach moral lessons and virtues.

    • Provides practical teachings for both monastics and laypeople on how to live a life conducive to enlightenment.

    Abhidhamma Pitaka

    		 A detailed systematic analysis of the Buddha’s teachings, providing a philosophical and psychological examination of Buddhist concepts. • Dhammasangani: A classification of mental and physical phenomena, offering an in-depth analysis of mental states and experience.

    • Vibhanga: Provides a detailed analysis of various doctrines, including virtues, meditation practices, and psychological states.

    • Puggalapannatti: Describes different types of persons and their spiritual progress, from ordinary beings to enlightened ones.

    • Kathavatthu: A collection of doctrinal debates that addresses differences between early Buddhist schools, offering clarification on certain teachings.

    • Yamaka: A set of questions and answers that explores complex doctrinal points in pairs of opposites.

    • Patthana: Describes conditional relations between phenomena, offering a complex framework for understanding dependent origination.

    		 • Mind and consciousness: Detailed study of the nature of the mind, its states, and interactions with the physical world.

    • Causality and the law of dependent origination (paticca-samuppada), explaining how phenomena arise and cease based on conditions.

    • Analytical psychology: Explores the workings of the human mind, including perception, cognition, and emotion.

    • Explores the relationship between mental and physical processes and provides an advanced understanding of reality and experience.

    • Essential for understanding advanced Buddhist philosophy and psychology.

     

    [UPSC 2024] Sanghabhuti, an Indian Buddhist monk, who travelled to China at the end of the fourth century AD, was the author of a commentary on:

    (a) Prajnaparamita Sutra (b) Visuddhimagga (c) Sarvastivada Vinaya (d) Lalitavistra