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Subject: History

  • Six sites added to India’s tentative list by UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre

    Why in the News?

    The Union Minister of Culture and Tourism has announced the addition of six sites to India’s tentative UNESCO World Heritage List.

    About the Sites

    Details
    Mudumal Megalithic Menhirs (Telangana)
    • Located in Mudumal region, Nalgonda district, Telangana.
    • Dates back to 1000 BCE to 500 BCE, associated with Iron Age.
    • Famous for menhirs, large upright stones used for burial or ceremonial purposes.
    • Provides insight into ancient South Indian megalithic cultures.
    Palace-Fortresses of the Bundelas (Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh)
    • Located in Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
    • Built by Bundela Rajputs from 16th to 18th centuries.
    • Known for a mix of Rajput, Mughal, and Hindu architectural styles.
    • Key sites include Orchha Fort, Datia Palace, and Chanderi Fort.
    Kanger Valley National Park (Chhattisgarh)
    • Located in Bastar district, Chhattisgarh.
    • Covers 200 km², known for dense forests, caves, and waterfalls.
    • Home to species like tigers, leopards, sloth bears, and bison.
    • Famous for Kanger Dhara waterfall and Bailadila Range of hills.
    Ashokan Edict Sites (Multiple States)
    • Spread across India: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal, and Karnataka.
    • Created by Emperor Ashoka during 3rd century BCE.
    • Focuses on moral conduct, non-violence, and promoting Buddhism.
    • Key sites include Sanchi, Lumbini, Kalinga, and Kandahar.
    Chausath Yogini Temples (Multiple States)
    • Found in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Orissa.
    • Built during the 8th to 12th centuries CE, associated with Tantric Hinduism.
    • Temples dedicated to 64 Yoginis, with notable sites in Khajuraho and Bhilsa.
    Gupta Temples in North India (Multiple States)
    • Located in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Haryana.
    • Built during 4th to 6th centuries CE during the Gupta Empire.
    • Characterized by Nagara-style architecture.
    • Notable examples: Deogarh Temple, Dasavatara Temple, etc.

     

    PYQ:

    [2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:

    1. Shantiniketan

    2. Rani-ki-Vav

    3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas

    4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya

    How many of the above properties were included in 2023?

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

     

  • Who was Amir Khusrau?

    Why in the News?

    Recently, PM Modi inaugurated the 25th edition of Jahaan-e-Khusrau, a Sufi music festival held at Sunder Nursery, New Delhi, in Khusrau’s honor.

    Who was Amir Khusrau?

    Who was Amir Khusrau?

    • Amir Khusrau was born in Patiyali, Uttar Pradesh, to a Turkish father and an Indian mother.
    • He served as a court poet to five Delhi Sultans:
      • Muiz ud din Qaiqabad of Mamluk Dynasty (1287–1290)
      • Jalaluddin Khalji (1290–1296)
      • Alauddin Khalji (1296–1316)
      • Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah (1316–1320)
      • Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325)
    • He was deeply influenced by Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya, whose teachings shaped his spiritual and poetic journey.
    • He is fondly remembered as “The Parrot of India” (Tuti-e-Hind) for his eloquence.

    Literary Contributions:

    • Wrote in Persian and Hindavi, pioneering Khari Boli, the precursor to Hindi and Urdu.
    • Created the first Hindi lexicon (Khalikbari), blending Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic words.
    • Notable works:
      • Tughlaq Nama (historical epic)
      • Nuh Sipihr (Nine Skies)
      • In the Bazaar of Love (ghazals and poetry)
    • Invented the qawwali tradition, merging Indian and Persian musical elements.
    • Composed Chhap Tilak Sab Chheeni Re, Zehal-e-Miskeen, and Sakal Ban Phool Rahi Sarson.
    • Credited with developing the sitar and tabla, though debated by historians.
    • Most devoted disciple of Sufi saint Nizamuddin Auliya.
    • Upon his master’s death in 1325, Khusrau followed within 6 months.
    • His tomb lies beside Nizamuddin’s dargah in Delhi, symbolizing their eternal bond.
    • Pioneered Hindavi poetry and laid the foundation for Hindi and Urdu literature.
    • Inspired generations of ghazal and qawwali singers, including Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and Abida Parveen.
    • Festivals like Jahaan-e-Khusrau continue to honor his enduring cultural legacy.

    PYQ:

    [2012] With reference to the religious history of medieval India, the Sufi mystics were known to pursue which of the following practices?

    1. Meditation and control of breath

    2. Severe ascetic exercises in a lonely place

    3. Recitation of holy songs to arouse a state of ecstasy in their audience

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Dramatic Performances Act, 1876

    Why in the News?

    PM Modi recently questioned why the colonial-era Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, which allowed authorities to ban plays deemed seditious, defamatory, or obscene, remained in force 75 years after independence.

    What is the Dramatic Performances Act, 1876?

    • The Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, was a colonial-era law enacted by the British to suppress nationalist and anti-government sentiments in public performances.
    • The Act empowered the government to ban, regulate, or censor public plays, pantomimes, and dramas that were deemed:
      • Scandalous or defamatory
      • Seditious or inciting disaffection against the government
      • Obscene or corrupting to public morality
    • It also allowed magistrates to search, seize, and arrest performers and organizers without a warrant.
    • The law prescribed up to three months of imprisonment and/or a fine for violations.

    References to Article 19 and Article 372

    • Conflict with Article 19(1)(a) – Right to Free Speech:
      • After independence, freedom of speech and expression was guaranteed under Article 19(1)(a).
      • The Allahabad High Court (1956) ruled the Act unconstitutional, stating it restricted free speech beyond reasonable limits.
    • Exceptions Under Article 19(2):
      • Article 19(2) allows reasonable restrictions on free speech for: Security of the state, public order, morality, and defamation.
      • The court ruled that the Dramatic Performances Act exceeded these limits.
    • Article 372 and Colonial Laws:
      • Article 372(1) of the Constitution states that laws in force before independence shall continue to be in effect unless repealed or modified by the Parliament.
      • Though invalidated in 1956, the law was formally repealed in 2018 under the Repealing and Amending (Second) Act, 2017.

    PYQ:

    [2014] What do you understand by the concept of “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss.

    [2021] A legislation which confers on the executive or administrative authority an unguided and uncontrolled discretionary power in the matter of application of law violates which one of the following Articles of the Constitution of India?​

    (a) Article 14 ​

    (b) Article 28​

    (c) Article 32 ​

    (d) Article 44​

     

  • Chandra Shekhar Azad and his Contributions

    Why in the News?

    Leaders from across the political spectrum paid tributes to the freedom fighter Chandra Shekhar Azad on his martyrdom day (27th February 1931).

    Who was Chandra Shekhar Azad?

    • Chandra Shekhar Azad (1906–1931) was a revolutionary who played a key role in India’s independence struggle.
    • Born in Bhabhra, Madhya Pradesh, he joined Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement at 15 but turned to armed revolution after its suspension.
    • He reorganized the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) alongside Bhagat Singh.
    • Azad vowed never to be captured alive and sacrificed himself in a shootout at Alfred Park, Allahabad, on February 27, 1931.

    His Contributions to the Freedom Struggle

    • Non-Cooperation Movement (1921): Arrested at 15, he declared his name as “Azad” (Free) in court and was punished with 15 lashes.
    • Joining HRA (1924): Became a member of Ram Prasad Bismil’s HRA and raised funds through political dacoities.
    • Kakori Train Robbery (1925): Helped loot a British train carrying treasury money; escaped capture while others were sentenced.
    • Reorganizing HSRA (1928): Transformed HRA into HSRA with Bhagat Singh, introducing socialist ideology.
    • Assassination of John Saunders (1928): Avenged Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, personally eliminating a police officer in the escape.
    • Attempt to Blow Up Lord Irwin’s Train (1929): Planned to assassinate Viceroy Lord Irwin, but the plan failed.
    • Final Stand (1931): Surrounded by British police, killed three officers, ensured his comrade’s escape, and shot himself with his last bullet.

    PYQ:

    [2020] Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss.

     

  • What is the Tea Horse Road?

    Why in the News?

    Recently, China’s Ambassador to India highlighted the historical significance of ‘Tea Horse Road’ in fostering Sino-Indian ties.

    About the Tea Horse Road

    • The Tea Horse Road originated during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE).
    • Buddhist monk Yijing (635-713 CE) recorded early trade between China, Tibet, and India, mentioning exchanges of sugar, textiles, and herbs.
    • By the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), the trade focused on tea exports to Tibet and importing horses for China’s military.
    • The network spanned over 2,000 km, crossing treacherous mountain passes at altitudes above 10,000 feet.
    • The Tea Horse Road was not a single road but a network of multiple routes. Two primary routes were:
    1. Yunnan Route:  Starting from Pu’er and Dali, passing through Lijiang, reaching Lhasa (Tibet), and extending into India (via Sikkim, Nepal, and Bhutan).
    2. Sichuan Route: Connecting Chengdu (Sichuan) to Tibet and North India.
    • Tea from southwestern China was transported to Tibet, then moved through the Himalayan passes to Kolkata and beyond, reaching Europe and Asia.
    • The rise of modern roads and railways in the mid-20th century led to its gradual decline.

    Historical Significance:

    • Trade & Economy: Connected Tibet and China to India’s markets, facilitating the export of Chinese tea and Tibetan wool to Kolkata while Indian textiles and spices moved northward.
    • Horses for Indian Cavalry: Tibetan horses, transported through the route, were crucial for Indian military campaigns, especially in the Mughal and British periods.
    • Spread of Buddhism: The route enabled Buddhist scholars and monks to travel between Nalanda, Tibet, and China, promoting cultural and religious exchanges.
    • Political & Diplomatic Relations: British India sought control over Sikkim and Tibet’s trade routes, leading to diplomatic interventions like the 1904 British expedition to Tibet.
    • Impact on Himalayan Regions: Strengthened trade and cultural ties between Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tibet, influencing their shared heritage and economy.

    PYQ:

    [2018] The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same. 

    [2016] ‘Belt and Road Initiative’ is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of

    (a) African Union

    (b) Brazil

    (c) European Union

    (d) China

     

  • Veer Savarkar and His Contributions

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister paid tribute to Veer Savarkar on his death anniversary (26th February), acknowledging his contributions to India’s freedom movement.

    About Veer Savarkar: Life, Contributions, and Legacy

    Details
    Who was Veer Savarkar? • Born on May 28, 1883, in Bhagur, Maharashtra.
    • Founded Abhinav Bharat Society (1904) for armed resistance.
    • Led India House in London (1906) and the Free India Society.
    • Arrested in 1910, sentenced to life imprisonment in Cellular Jail (Kala Pani, Andaman & Nicobar Islands).
    • Became President of the Hindu Mahasabha (1937-1943).
    • Died on February 26, 1966, after fasting till death.
    His Contributions • Advocated armed revolution against British rule.
    • Coined Hindutva (1923), defining Indian identity beyond religion.
    • Opposed Partition, emphasizing Hindu political unity.
    • Championed military nationalism over passive resistance.
    • Writings and ideology influenced Indian nationalist movements.
    Literary Works • The First War of Indian Independence (1909):  Reinterpreted the 1857 Revolt as a nationalist struggle.
    • Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1923): Laid the ideological foundation of Hindutva.
    • My Transportation for Life (1950): Memoirs of his imprisonment in Cellular Jail.
    • Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History: Advocated Hindu resistance against foreign invaders.
    Controversies • Gandhi Assassination Case (1948): Arrested but acquitted due to lack of evidence.
    • Mercy Petitions (1911-1924): Wrote clemency petitions for early release from prison, debated as tactical or compromising.
    • Opposition to Quit India Movement (1942): Rejected Gandhi’s call, favored military strength over civil disobedience.
    • Hindutva Ideology: Critics claim it fostered religious divisions, while supporters see it as reviving Hindu identity.

     

  • Battle of Karnal (1739)

    Why in the News?

    On February 24, 1739, the Battle of Karnal marked a turning point in the history of Mughal empire.

    About Battle of Karnal 

    • The Battle of Karnal on February 24, 1739, saw Nadir Shah’s Persian army defeat Mughal Emperor Muhammad Shah ‘Rangila’ in under three hours.
    • Despite having 300,000 soldiers, the Mughal army was crushed by Nadir Shah’s 55,000 well-trained troops using modern tactics and superior firearms.
    • Following the victory, Delhi was sacked, 30,000 civilians massacred, and the Mughal treasury looted, including the Koh-i-Noor diamond and the Peacock Throne.

    Impact on Mughal Decline

    • Economic Collapse: The Mughal treasury was emptied, crippling military and administrative strength.
    • Weakening Central Power: Governors of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad declared independence.
    • Military Decline: The Mughal army’s outdated tactics were exposed; future invasions (e.g., Ahmad Shah Abdali, 1748-1761) followed.
    • Rise of Regional Powers: The Marathas expanded, eventually capturing Delhi (1771); the Sikhs grew in Punjab.
    • British Expansion: The East India Company took advantage, leading to British rule after 1857.

    PYQ:

    [2019] With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdars and Zamindar?

    1. Jagirdars were holders of land assignments in lieu of judicial and police duties, whereas Zamindars were holders of revenue rights without obligation to perform any duty other than revenue collection.

    2. Land assignments to Jagirdars were hereditary and revenue rights of Zamindars were not hereditary.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Tea Tribes and Jhumur Dance

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister witnessed the largest-ever Jhumur dance performance in Guwahati, to commemorate the 200th anniversary of Assam’s tea industry.

    What are Tea Tribes/Tea Garden Communities of Assam?

    • The Tea Tribes or Tea Garden Communities of Assam are descendants of laborers brought by the British in the 19th century to work in tea plantations.
    • These workers were mainly from Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh.
    • Many were brought through forced migration, and even voluntary migration occurred under exploitative conditions.
    • They were subjected to poor wages, inhumane working conditions, and restricted mobility.
    • The community is concentrated in Upper Assam districts like Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Golaghat, Sonitpur, and Sivasagar, and in the Barak Valley.
    • They currently have Other Backward Classes (OBC) Status but demand Scheduled Tribe (ST) status, as many of their sub-groups, like Munda, Santhal, and Oraon, hold ST status in their original states.
    • Despite adversity, the Tea Garden Communities preserved their cultural identity, with distinct festivals, music, and dance forms.
      • Their major festivals include Tushu Puja and Karam Puja, celebrated with the traditional Jhumur dance.

    About Jhumur Dance 

    • Jhumur (also spelled Jhumoir or Jhumair) is a folk dance of the Sadan ethnolinguistic group, mainly practised by Assam’s Tea Garden Communities.
    • It originated in Chotanagpur Plateau (Jharkhand, Odisha, Bengal, and Chhattisgarh) and was brought to Assam during the British colonial era.
    • Over time, it blended with Assamese culture, incorporating Assamese musical and linguistic influences.
    • Performance and Style:
      • Women are the primary dancers, standing shoulder-to-shoulder in synchronized formations.
      • Men accompany them with traditional instruments like madal, dhol, dhak (drums), cymbals, flutes, and shehnai.
      • Attire: Women wear red and white sarees, while men wear kurta-dhoti with gamocha (traditional Assamese cloth).
    • Jhumur songs depict both celebration and hardship, narrating:
      • Love and Nature – Seasonal changes, harvest, and romance.
      • Hardships of Tea Workers – Struggles, migration, and exploitation.
      • Festivals and Community Life – Unity, faith, and social cohesion.
    • It serves as a cultural bridge, helping retain their traditions and forge a unique identity in Assam.

    PYQ:

    [2021] With reference to India, the terms ‘Halbi, Ho and Kui’ pertain to​:

    (a) Dance forms of Northwest India​

    (b) Musical instruments​

    (c) Pre-historic cave paintings​

    (d) Tribal languages​

     

  • Pagri Sambhal Jatta Movement

    Why in the News?

    On February 23, 2025, farmers protesting at the Punjab and Haryana borders are observing Pagri Sambhal Diwas in honor of Ajit Singh, a freedom fighter, revolutionary, and Bhagat Singh’s paternal uncle.

    About the Pagri Sambhal Jatta Movement (1907)

    • The Pagri Sambhal Jatta movement was a peasant uprising in Punjab against the oppressive British land laws that exploited farmers.
    • The movement was led by Ajit Singh, Kishan Singh (Bhagat Singh’s father), and Lala Lajpat Rai, who mobilized farmers to resist these unfair policies.
    • Farmers protested against three major British laws:
    1. Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 – Restricted farmers from selling or mortgaging their land, favoring landlords and moneylenders.
    2. Punjab Land Colonisation Act, 1906 – Allowed the British to take control of farmers’ land after their death instead of passing it to their heirs.
    3. Doab Bari Act, 1907 – Deprived farmers of ownership rights and reduced them to contract workers.
    • The British also raised taxes on agricultural land and irrigation, making it harder for farmers to sustain themselves.
    • The slogan “Pagri Sambhal Jatta“, meaning “Take care of your turban, O farmer,” was coined by Banke Dayal, a nationalist poet, and became a symbol of self-respect and protest.
    • The movement resulted in mass protests and acts of civil disobedience, forcing the British to roll back some clauses of these laws.
    • Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai were arrested in May 1907 and exiled to Burma. Due to public pressure, they were released in November 1907.
    • Fearing further persecution, Ajit Singh fled to Persia and later lived in Turkey, Brazil, Germany, and Italy, where he worked with other revolutionaries against British rule.
    • The movement became a landmark in India’s freedom struggle, inspiring future farmers’ agitations, the Ghadar Movement, and Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary activities.

    Who was Ajit Singh?

    On February 23, 2025, farmers protesting at the Punjab and Haryana borders are observing Pagri Sambhal Diwas in honor of Ajit Singh, a freedom fighter, revolutionary, and the paternal uncle of Bhagat Singh.

    • Ajit Singh was a freedom fighter, revolutionary, and nationalist leader who played a crucial role in India’s independence movement.
    • He was born on February 23, 1881, in Khatkar Kalan, Punjab, which is now part of Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district.
    • He was the elder brother of Kishan Singh, the father of Bhagat Singh, and played a key role in shaping Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary ideals.
    • Ajit Singh co-founded the Bharat Mata Society, an organization that aimed to unite farmers and revolutionaries against British exploitation.
    • Due to his active role in the Pagri Sambhal Jatta movement, he became a prime target of British authorities and was forced into exile for 38 years (1909-1947).
    • He lived in Persia, Turkey, Brazil, Germany, and Italy, where he continued his revolutionary activities and worked with Lala Hardayal and Madame Cama.
    • In March 1947, Ajit Singh returned to India, just a few months before India gained independence.
    • However, due to prolonged illness, he passed away on August 15, 1947, the very day India became independent.
    • Since 2021, February 23 has been observed as Pagri Sambhal Diwas, honoring Ajit Singh’s contributions to India’s independence and farmers’ rights.

     

    PYQ:

    [2010] What was the immediate cause for the launch of the Swadeshi movement?

    (a) The partition of Bengal done by Lord Curzon.

    (b) A sentence of 18 months rigorous imprisonment imposed on Lokmanya Tilak.

    (c) The arrest and deportation of Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh; and passing of the Punjab Colonization Bill.

    (d) Death sentence pronounced on the Chapekar brothers.

     

  • Ratnagiri Buddhist Heritage Site in Odisha

    Why in the News?

    On December 1, 2024, a team of archaeologists, students, and laborers began excavation at the Ratnagiri Buddhist Heritage Site in Jajpur, Odisha.

    On December 1, 2024, a team of archaeologists, students, and laborers began excavation at the Ratnagiri Buddhist Heritage Site in Jajpur, Odisha.

    About the Ratnagiri Buddhist Heritage Site

    • Located in Jajpur district, Odisha, Ratnagiri is part of the “Diamond Triangle” along with Udayagiri and Lalitgiri.
    • It flourished as a Vajrayana Buddhist center from the 5th to 13th century AD.
    • It was first reported in 1906, with excavations conducted from 1958-1961 by Debala Mitra.
    • It is identified as ‘Sri Ratnagiri Mahavihara Arya Bhikshu Sangha’ through inscriptions.

    Key Findings at the Site:

    • Largest Buddha Head in Odisha: 1.4 meters tall, made of Khondalite stone, featuring intricate carvings.
    • Monolithic Elephant Sculpture: Likely part of an ancient shrine complex.
    • Hundreds of Votive Stupas: Used for spiritual offerings, reflecting Vajrayana Buddhist traditions.
    • Sanskrit Inscriptions in Kutila Script: Provide insights into monastic teachings and rituals.
    • Stone Tablets and Masonry Structures: Indicate large, organized monastic settlements.
    • Lion Pedestal (Simhasana) and Buddhist Deities: Includes Amoghasiddhi, Ratnasambhava, Akshobhya, Amitabha, Tara, Marici, Padmapani, Cunda.
    • Artefacts Used in Local Villages: Repurposed as decorations, Tulsi bases, and construction materials.

    PYQ:

    [2014] With reference to Buddhist history, tradition and culture in India, consider the following pairs :

    Famous shrine: Location

    1. Tabo monastery and temple complex: Spiti Valley
    2. Lhotsava Lhakhang temple, Nako: Zanskar Valley
    3. Alchi temple complex: Ladakh complex

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3