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Subject: International Relations

  • [30th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: SSTC is more than a diplomatic phrase

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] If the last few decades were of Asia’s growth story, the next few are expected to be of Africa’s.” In the light of this statement, examine India’s influence in Africa in recent years.

    Linkage: South-South Cooperation is the foundation of India–Africa engagement. India’s role in Africa through capacity building (ITEC), concessional credit, food security projects, and the India-UN Development Partnership Fund reflects SSTC principles of mutual respect, replicability, and shared growth, positioning India as a partner in Africa’s expected rise.

    Mentor’s Comment

    With only a fraction of time left to achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, the global community is exploring new models of partnership. South-South and Triangular Cooperation (SSTC) has emerged as a vital mechanism, providing frugal, replicable, and contextually relevant solutions. India, rooted in the philosophy of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, has positioned itself as a leader in this space, particularly in food security, digital transformation, and inclusive growth. This article unpacks the significance of SSTC, India’s role, and why this cooperative model is central to a more equitable world order.

    Introduction

    The United Nations Day for South-South and Triangular Cooperation (September 12) commemorates the 1978 Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA), which laid the foundation for solidarity-based cooperation among developing nations. Far from being a mere diplomatic phrase, SSTC today is a lifeline for billions, offering cost-effective, innovative, and scalable models of development at a time when traditional aid flows are shrinking. India, with its rich developmental experience and global outreach, is shaping the SSTC discourse through initiatives like the India-UN Development Partnership Fund, Voice of the Global South Summits, and collaboration with the World Food Programme (WFP).

    Why in the News?

    SSTC has gained renewed significance as the world approaches the 2030 deadline for SDGs with urgency, amid declining international aid and mounting challenges like climate change, conflict, and inequality. For the first time, SSTC is being recognised not merely as supplemental but as a core pathway to equitable and sustainable global development. India’s leadership — from digital public infrastructure exports to food system innovations like Grain ATMs and rice fortification, has transformed it into a hub of replicable global solutions. The 2025 UN Day theme, “New Opportunities and Innovation through SSTC”, underscores this transition, making the issue both timely and transformative.

    India’s Role and Philosophy of Cooperation

    1. Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam: India’s developmental philosophy sees the world as one family, placing emphasis on sovereignty, equality, and mutual respect.
    2. Transition to food surplus: Once a food-deficit nation, India now runs one of the world’s largest food safety nets, offering models for the Global South.
    3. Global leadership: From hosting the Voice of the Global South Summits to securing AU’s membership in the G20, India promotes inclusivity in global governance.

    What is the Relevance of SSTC Today?

    1. Cost-effectiveness: SSTC provides better returns on investment at a time when funding for humanitarian and development sectors is shrinking.
    2. Replicability and relevance: Local innovations like India’s food distribution optimisation or UPI have global application.
    3. Solidarity-based model: Unlike traditional aid, SSTC is grounded in mutual respect and shared learning, crucial for trust-building in the Global South.

    How Has India Contributed to SSTC?

    1. Institutional frameworks: India set up the Development Partnership Administration in its Foreign Ministry to coordinate development partnerships.
    2. Capacity-building: Through the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme, India has trained professionals in 160+ countries.
    3. India-UN Development Partnership Fund: Established in 2017, it has financed 75 transformative projects across 56 developing countries, especially LDCs and SIDS.
    4. Digital diplomacy: Export of Aadhaar, UPI, and digital infrastructure models as low-cost, inclusive tools.

    What Role Has the India-WFP Partnership Played?

    1. Testing ground for innovations: Over 60 years, India served as a laboratory for WFP to pilot globally relevant solutions.
    2. Grain ATMs (Annapurti): Automated grain dispensing machines ensuring efficient access to food.
    3. Supply chain optimisation: Strengthened the PDS through digitalisation.
    4. Women-led Take-Home Ration programme: Empowering communities while tackling malnutrition.
    5. Rice fortification: India’s national initiative to enhance nutrition replicated in countries like Nepal and Laos.

    How Does Triangular Cooperation Add Value?

    1. Linking South-South with North-South: Brings in traditional donors, amplifying resources and best practices.
    2. Inclusive partnerships: Extends beyond governments to involve civil society, private sector, and grassroots communities.
    3. UN Fund contributions: Over the last three decades, 47 governments have funded projects in 70+ countries, benefiting people in 155 nations.

    Conclusion

    SSTC embodies a renewed spirit of partnership, rooted in equality, mutual respect, and innovation. For countries of the Global South, it is not merely a diplomatic mechanism but a pathway to resilience and empowerment. India’s leadership in digital public goods, food security, and inclusive governance has given SSTC tangible models of success. As the 2030 deadline looms, scaling such innovations and ensuring triangular cooperation will be crucial for achieving a sustainable and equitable world order.

  • Kokrajhar-Gelephu and Banarhat-Samtse Railway Lines to Bhutan

    Why in the News?

    India and Bhutan have launched their first-ever rail links, connecting Kokrajhar–Gelephu (69 km, Assam–Bhutan) and Banarhat–Samtse (20 km, West Bengal–Bhutan).

    Kokrajhar-Gelephu and Banarhat-Samtse Railway Lines to Bhutan

    About India–Bhutan Railway Connectivity:

    • Overview: Agreements were signed during PM Modi’s visit to Bhutan (March 2024) and formalised in 2025.
    • Projects:
      1. Kokrajhar–Gelephu line: 6 stations, multiple bridges, viaducts, designed for Vande Bharat trains; expected completion in 4 years.
      2. Banarhat–Samtse line: 2 stations, major & minor bridges, flyovers, underpasses; expected completion in 3 years.
    • Both lines will be fully electrified, giving Bhutan direct access to India’s 1,50,000 km railway network, boosting passenger and goods transport.

    Significance of the Project for India:

    • Bilateral Relations: Strengthens ties with Bhutan, India’s closest neighbour and largest recipient of Indian development assistance.
    • Strategic Security: Enhances regional security and serves as a counterbalance to China’s influence in South Asia.
    • Economic Integration: Supports Bhutan’s trade (80% with India), boosts hydropower exports, and aids industrial development.
    • Tourism & Culture: Improves people-to-people exchanges, especially linking Gelephu’s Mindfulness City and Samtse’s industrial hub.
    • Act East Policy: Advances India’s policy through cross-border infrastructure in the eastern and northeastern region.
    • Rail Diplomacy: Positions Indian Railways as a strategic enabler of diplomacy and connectivity in the neighbourhood.
    [UPSC 2023] With reference to India’s projects on connectivity, consider the following statements:

    1. East-West Corridor under Golden Quadrilateral Project connects Dibrugarh and Surat.

    2. Trilateral Highway connects Moreh in Manipur and Chiang Mai in Thailand via Myanmar.

    3. Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Economic Corridor connects Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh with Kunming in China.

    How many of the above statements are correct?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None*

     

  • What is Wassenaar Arrangement?

    Why in the News?

    Protests erupted over Microsoft after allegations that its cloud services (Azure) are aiding Israeli military operations, harming Palestinian civilians, raising concerns under the Wassenaar Arrangement.

    What is Wassenaar Arrangement?

    • Establishment: Created in 1996 as a successor to the Cold War-era COCOM (Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls).
    • Name Origin: Named after Wassenaar, a suburb of The Hague, where the agreement was reached in 1995.
    • Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
    • Membership: 42 countries; India joined in 2017. Includes most NATO/EU states and all UNSC P5 except China.
    • Objective: Promote transparency, responsibility, and control in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use technologies.
    • Mechanism: Works through voluntary information-sharing, export license denials, and notifications on controlled transfers.
    • Control Lists:
      • Munitions List: Covers conventional arms including tanks, combat aircraft, UAVs, helicopters, missiles, small arms.
      • Dual-Use List: Covers sensitive technologies and equipment with both civilian and military applications.

    Wassenaar Arrangement and Software:

    • Initial Scope: Designed for hardware exports (equipment, chips, devices).
    • 2013 Expansion: Included “intrusion software” that can bypass or defeat cyber protections.
    • Challenges:
      • Cloud/SaaS blurs what counts as an “export.”
      • Inconsistent interpretations among members for software transfer and access.
      • Grey areas: defensive research exemptions, cross-border data flows, and digital surveillance.
    • Gap: Rapid rise of AI, cloud computing, and biometrics has outpaced WA’s traditional framework.

    • Reform Needs:

      • Broaden lists to explicitly cover cloud, AI, surveillance, and biometric systems.
      • Recognize remote access as exports.
      • Establish technical committees for frequent updates and agile controls.

    Wassenaar Arrangement and India:

    • Membership (2017): Enhanced India’s profile in non-proliferation and arms control, bolstering its case for entry into the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
    • Export Controls: Aligns India’s SCOMET list (Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment, and Technologies) with global norms.
    • Technology Access: Opens pathways to sensitive dual-use technologies vital for space, defence, and digital industries.
    • Diplomacy: Supports India’s counter-terrorism efforts, including the No Money for Terrorism (NMFT) initiative.
    [UPSC 2011] Recently, the USA decided to support India’s membership in multilateral export control regimes called the “Australia Group” and the “Wassenaar Arrangement”. What is the difference between them?

    1. The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar- Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives.

    2. The Australia Group comprises predominantly of Asian, African, and North American countries, whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American continents.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 *

     

  • India-EU Strategic Agenda

    Introduction

    The India–European Union (EU) relationship has traditionally been overshadowed by India’s closer ties with the U.S. and Russia. However, the release of the EU’s Strategic Agenda for India, ahead of the 2026 leaders’ summit, is a milestone. It lays out a comprehensive framework across five pillars:

    • Economy & Trade
    • Global Connectivity
    • Emerging Technologies
    • Security & Defence
    • People-to-People Ties

    With trade volumes nearing EUR 180 billion (goods + services), EU FDI nearly doubling in five years, and ambitious connectivity projects like the India–Middle East–Europe Corridor, this document represents Europe’s intent to recalibrate its Asia policy with India at the centre.

    Why in the News?

    This development is significant because it is the first time the EU has released a detailed, forward-looking strategic agenda exclusively for India. Traditionally, India–EU ties have been seen as underwhelming compared to India–US or India–Russia ties. But with EUR 120 billion goods trade in 2024 (a 90% increase over the last decade) and the EU emerging as India’s largest trading partner, the stakes have never been higher. What makes this moment compelling is the convergence: Europe seeks predictability away from U.S. uncertainty, and India seeks diversification in partners. The scale of planned cooperation, from AI and nuclear fusion to migration and maritime security, signals that India–EU ties are set to move from rhetoric to institutionalised, multi-sectoral partnership.

    How significant is the economic partnership? (Pillar 1 – Economy & Trade)

    1. Largest trading partner: EU is India’s biggest trade partner; India is EU’s largest in the Global South.
    2. High-value trade: Goods trade at EUR 120 bn in 2024 (+90% in 10 years); services add EUR 60 bn.
    3. FDI surge: EU FDI in India EUR 140 bn in 2023 (doubled in 5 years).
    4. Employment impact: 6,000 European companies directly employ 3 million Indians.
    5. Future goals: Negotiations on FTA, Investment Protection Agreement (IPA), Geographical Indications (GI), and air transport deal.

    How are India and the EU shaping global connectivity? (Pillar 2 – Global Connectivity)

    • Global Gateway: EU’s EUR 300 bn infrastructure programme aligned with India’s MAHASAGAR initiative.
    • EU-India Connectivity Partnership (2021): Framework for joint digital, energy, and transport projects.
    • IMEC (India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor): Revival of historical trade routes via rail, maritime, clean hydrogen, and digital infrastructure.
    • Digital corridor: Blue Raman cable (11,700 km) connecting EU–Africa–India with secure, high-speed internet.
    • Green shipping: Joint efforts for sustainable maritime corridors to cut carbon dependency.

    How will cooperation in emerging technologies unfold? (Pillar 3 – Emerging Technologies)

    • Complementary strengths: EU = regulation, research, green tech; India = startups, datasets, frugal innovation.
    • Innovation hubs: Proposed EU-India platforms on critical tech domains.
    • Startup partnership: Collaboration with European Innovation Council & Start-up India.
    • AI applications: Joint work on large language models, multilingual NLP, climate-focused AI.
    • Nuclear cooperation: Euratom-India pact on nuclear safety, waste, security, and fusion energy.

    What are the prospects in security and defence? (Pillar 4 – Security & Defence)

    • Strategic Dialogue (2025): Maritime, cyber, counter-terrorism, and non-proliferation as focus areas.
    • Security of Information Agreement: To enable sharing of classified intelligence.
    • Indo-Pacific role: EU aligning with India as a stabilising force in the region.
    • Naval cooperation: Proposed link between EU Naval Force & Indian Navy in Western Indian Ocean.
    • Defence industry: EU–India Defence Forum under consideration to build resilient supply chains.

    Why are people-to-people ties central to this partnership? (Pillar 5 – People-to-People Ties)

    • Migration scale: 825,000 Indians in EU (2023); largest group with EU Blue Cards.
    • Visa access: 1 million Schengen visas issued in 2024 (many multiple-entry).
    • Education mobility: Focus on Erasmus+ expansion, Union of Skills, recognition of qualifications.
    • Talent mobility: Balancing India’s workforce needs with the EU’s labour market.
    • Strategic timing: EU’s education appeal grows as U.S. under Trump curtails research openness.

    Issues and Complications in India–EU Relations

    1. Stalled Free Trade Agreement (FTA) in the past: Negotiations began in 2007 but stalled due to disagreements over tariff reductions, intellectual property rights, and services access. This history raises doubts about the 2025 deadline.
    2. Agricultural sensitivities: India’s reluctance to open its farm sector clashes with EU’s push for market access and strict sanitary and phytosanitary standards.
    3. Regulatory frictions: The EU’s strict data protection regime (GDPR), climate-linked trade measures like the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), and sustainability norms could penalise Indian exports.
    4. Human rights and political conditionalities: The EU often raises concerns about human rights, labour laws, and democratic freedoms, which India perceives as interference in internal matters.
    5. Slow EU decision-making: Unlike bilateral partnerships with the US or Russia, negotiations with the EU are often complicated by the need for consensus among 27 member states.
    6. Strategic divergence: The EU still lacks a coherent Indo-Pacific strategy compared to the Quad or NATO, limiting its security role. India, on its part, prioritises strategic autonomy and may be hesitant to align too closely with Western blocs.

    Way Forward

    1. Conclude the FTA swiftly: India and the EU must avoid past deadlocks by ensuring flexibility on tariff and regulatory issues, especially in agriculture, services, and data protection.
    2. Deepen strategic convergence: Institutionalise the proposed EU–India Security and Defence Partnership, enhancing naval cooperation in the Indo-Pacific, and expanding counter-terrorism and cyber security frameworks.
    3. Leverage connectivity initiatives: Ensure timely execution of flagship projects like IMEC and the Blue Raman digital corridor, aligning them with India’s own initiatives (MAHASAGAR, Sagarmala) to strengthen regional integration.
    4. Balanced tech cooperation: Create safeguards for responsible AI, nuclear safety, and emerging tech to ensure mutual trust while tapping into EU’s regulatory strengths and India’s innovation ecosystem.
    5. Migration and education synergy: Streamline recognition of Indian qualifications in Europe and negotiate mobility partnerships that align with India’s demographic advantage and EU’s labour market shortages.
    6. Sustain political momentum: Regular high-level summits, parliamentary dialogues, and Track-II diplomacy should be pursued to prevent bureaucratic inertia from stalling this ambitious agenda.

    Conclusion

    The India–EU strategic agenda signals a qualitative shift in the partnership, moving beyond transactional trade ties to a multi-pillar strategic convergence. With ambitious timelines, such as concluding the FTA by 2025, and big-ticket projects like IMEC and nuclear fusion cooperation, both sides are investing political capital. For India, this means access to technology, markets, and security partnerships that complement ties with the U.S. and Indo-Pacific allies. For the EU, this provides an anchor in Asia’s fastest-growing economy and a reliable partner in turbulent global politics.

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2023] The expansion and strengthening of NATO and a stronger US-Europe strategic partnership works well in India.’ What is your opinion about this statement? Give reasons and examples to support your answer.

    Linkage: The India–EU Strategic Agenda complements a stronger US–Europe partnership by giving India parallel, diversified strategic options in trade, technology, and security; together, they reinforce India’s strategic autonomy while balancing China’s rise. NATO’s strengthening secures Europe’s defence, freeing the EU to deepen economic and technological engagement with India, as seen in IMEC, AI cooperation, and FTA talks.

  • [pib] Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC)-III Summit

    Why in the News?

    India recently hosted a meeting of foreign ministers of Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC) in New York.

    About Forum for India–Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC):

    • Launch: Established in 2014 during PM Narendra Modi’s visit to Fiji under the Act East Policy.
    • Members: Comprises 14 Pacific Island Countries (PICs) i.e Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Nauru, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu.
    • Objectives: Strengthen cooperation in trade, investment, health, agriculture, renewable energy, disaster management, digital connectivity, and climate change adaptation.

    • Summits Held:

      • Suva (2014)
      • Jaipur (2015)
      • Port Moresby (2023)
    • Key Initiatives: $1 million climate fund, Pan-Pacific Islands e-network, visa on arrival, cooperation in space technology, and training of diplomats.
    • Trade: Current bilateral trade is about $300 million annually (exports $200 million, imports $100 million).

    Strategic Importance of FIPIC:

    • Indo-Pacific Outreach: Expands India’s role in maritime governance and regional security.
    • Countering China: Acts as a soft-power tool to balance China’s influence in the Pacific.
    • Maritime Leverage: PICs control vast Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) crucial for shipping lanes, fisheries, and seabed resources.
    • Climate Diplomacy: Strengthens India’s leadership with climate-vulnerable PICs under South-South cooperation.
    • Global Forums: PICs often vote as a bloc in UN, WTO, and other multilateral institutions, enhancing India’s diplomatic weight.

  • With US withdrawing from multilateralism, India has both risks and opportunities

    Introduction

    The United Nations (UN) was envisioned in 1945 as the cornerstone of a rules-based global order. Yet, 80 years later, it faces one of its gravest challenges. US President Donald Trump’s second term has unleashed a sweeping retreat from multilateralism, leaving the UN structurally weakened and financially strained. His push for sovereignty-driven unilateralism, withdrawal from critical agreements and institutions, and deep funding cuts have left a vacuum increasingly filled by China. For India, this turbulence is both a threat and an opportunity to shape a new multilateralism.

    Trump’s Shift from Multilateralism to Unilateralism

    1. America First Doctrine: Trump has framed sovereignty as the fundamental principle of international relations, rejecting supra-nationalism.
    2. UN Critique: He claims to have done “a better job than the UN Security Council” in maintaining peace, boasting of “ending seven wars” within eight months of his second term.
    3. First-term precedent: Withdrawals from the Paris Agreement, UNESCO, Human Rights Council, Iran Nuclear Deal signalled this trend.
    4. Second-term escalation: Guided by Project 2025 (Heritage Foundation manifesto), Trump has cut >80% of US contributions to UN operations, including peacekeeping and global health.

    How is the UN Being Undermined?

    1. Massive Funding Cuts: US contributions slashed from 22% to a fraction, crippling UN’s financial base.
    2. Institutional Withdrawals: Exit from WHO, UNESCO, Human Rights Council and halting support for the Paris Agreement & Climate Loss and Damage Fund.
    3. Policy Rejection: No support for sustainable development or climate mitigation under Trump’s agenda.
    4. Domestic Politics Spillover: Appeals to his populist base that frames liberals as “war party” and paints the UN as an obstruction.

    China’s Expanding Role in Global Governance

    1. Strategic Positioning: Beijing systematically places its nationals in influential leadership, technical, and administrative posts.
    2. New Initiatives: Promotes “Global Development, Global Security, Global Civilisation, Global Governance” — aligned with the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
    3. Funding Power: Contributes around $680 million (~20% of UN budget), second only to the US.
    4. Outcome: While not yet supplanting US dominance, Chinese activism is making Beijing an indispensable player.

    Decline of Multilateralism: A Structural Problem

    1. Historical High Point: Around 2000 with WTO launch & Millennium Development Goals.
    2. Erosion Factors: Populist nationalism, US-China rivalry, US-Russia vetoes paralyzing UNSC, and transatlantic divisions.
    3. Current Paralysis: Even humanitarian crises are stalled by veto politics.
    4. Reform Blockage: Calls for UNSC expansion remain frozen, while agencies face financial crisis and inefficiencies.

    India’s Opportunities and Responsibilities

    1. Financial Contribution Gap: India contributes $38 million (<1%), far below its stature as the world’s 4th largest economy.
    2. Comparative Figures: US: $820 million (22%), China: $680 million (20%).
    3. Strategic Priorities: Instead of old demands (like UNSC expansion), India should focus on:
      1. AI governance
      2. North-South coalitions
      3. UN reforms for efficiency
    4. Moral Leadership: As a long-standing Global South champion, India must pay more and lead more to shape new rules.

    Conclusion

    The UN at 80 stands fragile, buffeted by American retreat and Chinese ambition. Trump’s second-term disruption has turned long-standing weaknesses into systemic crises. Yet, neither the US nor China enjoys universal legitimacy. For India, the moment is decisive: it can no longer lament but must shoulder the responsibility of building a multilateralism that works in an age of rivalry and rapid change.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] Too little cash, too much politics, leaves UNESCO fighting for life. Discuss the statement in the light of US’ withdrawal and its accusation of the cultural body as being ‘anti-Israel bias’.

    Linkage: It highlights how US funding withdrawal and political accusations cripple UN agencies like UNESCO, leaving them under-resourced and delegitimised. Similarly, Trump’s second-term cuts — over 80% reduction in US contributions and exits from WHO, UNESCO, HRC — show how financial muscle and politics erode multilateral institutions.

  • U.K, Australia and Canada recognise Palestine state in seismic shift

    Introduction

    On September 22, 2025, Britain, Australia, and Canada formally recognised Palestine as a sovereign state, a step that Portugal and potentially France are expected to follow at the UN General Assembly. This unprecedented shift, especially by G-7 members like the U.K. and Canada, alters decades of Western foreign policy and signals mounting pressure on Israel after nearly two years of the Gaza war that began with Hamas’s October 7, 2023 attack. While hailed as historic by Palestinians, Israel’s Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu condemned the move as an “absurd reward for terrorism.”

    Why is this development historic?

    1. First G-7 recognition: U.K. and Canada became the first G-7 nations to officially recognise Palestine, breaking with the long-standing Western alignment with Israel.
    2. Sharp contrast with past policy: For decades, Western countries had deferred recognition pending a negotiated two-state solution; this marks a direct policy shift.
    3. Conflict backdrop: The recognition comes amid international outrage over prolonged violence in Gaza since 2023, highlighting the urgency for peace.
    4. Special burden: The U.K.’s Deputy PM admitted Britain carries a “special responsibility” due to the 1917 Balfour Declaration, which paved the way for Israel’s creation.

    Why did the U.K., Australia, and Canada take this step?

    1. Reviving peace hopes: Leaders like Keir Starmer emphasised the recognition as a way to keep the two-state solution alive.
    2. International pressure: Growing calls for humanitarian accountability in Gaza pushed these governments to act.
    3. Alignment with Europe: Portugal announced recognition the same day, and France is expected to follow, indicating a coordinated Western European push.

    What has been Israel’s reaction?

    1. Harsh opposition: PM Netanyahu warned that calls for Palestinian statehood “endanger Israel’s existence.”
    2. Terrorism narrative: Israel frames recognition as a “reward for terrorism” in reference to Hamas’s October 7, 2023 attack.
    3. UN strategy: Netanyahu vowed to fight this recognition diplomatically at the ongoing UN General Assembly.

    What role does history play in this debate?

    1. Balfour Declaration, 1917: U.K.’s role in facilitating Israel’s creation still casts a shadow over West Asia’s conflict.
    2. Decades of stalemate: Palestinian statehood has been promised but deferred since the Oslo Accords of the 1990s.
    3. Burden of colonial legacy: Britain’s recognition is seen as part-redressal for its historical role.

    How does this reshape global geopolitics?

    1. U.S.–Western divide: Recognition creates divergence between U.S. policy (still opposed) and its closest allies like the U.K. and Canada, weakening the coherence of the Western bloc.
    2. Global South solidarity: Developing nations, many of whom already recognise Palestine, view this as overdue Western alignment, strengthening South–North convergence on justice and decolonisation.
    3. UN spotlight: With the General Assembly opening, Palestine’s legitimacy is expected to dominate the global agenda, elevating the conflict as a test case for multilateralism.
    4. Regional fault lines: Arab states may gain renewed diplomatic leverage, while Israel risks isolation beyond its traditional U.S. support base, potentially altering Middle East power balances.
    5. Strategic recalibration for India and Asia: Asian powers like India and China will have to navigate between historical solidarity with Palestine and strong bilateral partnerships with Israel, testing their strategic autonomy.
    6. Narrative of international law and legitimacy: Recognition by major Western democracies strengthens the normative argument for Palestinian statehood, challenging Israel’s framing of the issue as a security-only concern.

    Conclusion

    The recognition of Palestine by the U.K., Australia, and Canada is more than symbolic; it could catalyse a chain reaction of Western nations acknowledging Palestinian sovereignty. While it reignites hope for a two-state solution, it also risks deepening fault lines with Israel and the U.S.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2018] India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.” Discuss

    Linkage: The recognition of Palestine by U.K., Australia, and Canada highlights how global powers are recalibrating their West Asia policies, creating new pressures on countries like India. While India recognised Palestine in 1988, it has simultaneously built deep and diverse ties with Israel in defence, agriculture, and technology. This mirrors the PYQ’s core theme—India’s Israel relationship is now structurally entrenched, even as balancing Palestine’s cause remains a diplomatic necessity.

  • [20th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The Saudi-Pakistan pact is a dodgy insurance policy

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2018] In what ways would the ongoing US–Iran Nuclear Pact controversy affect the national interest of India? How should India respond to this situation?

    Linkage: The Saudi–Pakistan SMDA, like the earlier US–Iran Nuclear Pact controversy, reshapes West Asian alignments and directly impacts India’s energy security, diaspora safety, and regional stability. Just as India had to balance between Iran, the U.S., and Gulf partners in 2018, it must now carefully hedge between Riyadh and Islamabad while safeguarding its own strategic interests.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement (SMDA) signed between Saudi Arabia and Pakistan in September 2025 has been described as a pact of optics rather than substance. Its timing, context, and asymmetrical calculations raise questions on whether it strengthens West Asian security or merely signals short-term adjustments. For UPSC aspirants, this episode provides insights into the shifting geopolitics of South West Asia, Pakistan’s strategic opportunism, Saudi Arabia’s security dilemmas, and India’s balancing role.

    Introduction

    On 17 September 2025, Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman and Pakistani Premier Shahbaz Sharif signed the Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement (SMDA) in Riyadh, with Field Marshal Asim Munir in attendance. While presented as a landmark pact, its real significance lies in the optics of security reassurance amid the shifting sands of Middle Eastern politics. Both nations have a chequered past of military cooperation, rooted in shared faith but divided by divergent threat perceptions. The agreement’s asymmetrical benefits, U.S. undertones, and implications for India make it geopolitically consequential.

    Why is the SMDA in the news and why is it significant?

    1. First major pact in decades: The last high-point of Saudi–Pakistan defence ties was in the 1979–89 period, when 20,000 Pakistani troops protected Saudi Arabia and the Holy Harams.
    2. Optical reassurance: The SMDA is viewed more as a symbolic gesture than a substantive alliance, designed to show unity amidst rising threats from Iran, Yemen, and Israel.
    3. Geopolitical urgency: Triggered by the September 9 Israeli air strike in Doha (Qatar), the pact signals waning U.S. credibility as a security guarantor for the Gulf.
    4. Big deal: Pakistan is now a declared nuclear state, raising speculation of nuclear cooperation with Riyadh, though practical transfer remains improbable.

    What has been the history of Saudi-Pakistan defence cooperation?

    1. Golden phase (1979–89): 20,000 Pakistani soldiers stationed in Saudi Arabia to protect the monarchy and act against Iran and Yemen.
    2. Saudi view: Treated Pakistani forces as paid Praetorian Guards, limiting their autonomy.
    3. Pakistani view: Resented lack of command; exclusion of Shia troops created tensions.
    4. 1990 onwards: Pakistan refused Saudi requests during major crises (Iraq’s Kuwait invasion, Yemeni war), limiting its role to protecting the Holy Harams.

    How has the United States influenced the SMDA?

    1. Pentagon as the guarantor: U.S. historically underpinned Saudi–Pak defence ties “over-the-horizon.”
    2. Trump’s role: In June 2025, Field Marshal Munir’s “private lunch” with Trump in Washington signalled Washington’s blessing.
    3. Israeli factor: Saudi Arabia wanted a U.S. defence pact and nuclear technology in exchange for recognising Israel. The Hamas attack on Israel in Oct 2023 derailed the plan, leaving the SMDA as a consolation prize.
    4. Credibility gap: The U.S. failure to defend Qatar against Israeli strikes exposed fragility in Gulf security guarantees.

    What are Riyadh’s calculations from the SMDA?

    1. Avoid Arab troops: Past experience with Arab/Turkish troops created risks of “political pollination.
    2. Massive arms imports: Saudi Arabia has ordered $100 billion worth of U.S. weapons in 2025.
    3. Nuclear hedge: Pakistan’s nuclear capability could deter Iran if it goes nuclear.
    4. Chinese factor: Pakistan’s ties with China may complicate Riyadh’s trust.
    5. Realistic expectation: Riyadh foresees smaller Pakistani footprints than before, given past frictions.

    What are Islamabad’s calculations from the SMDA?

    1. Asymmetrical gains: No intention to fight Saudi wars against Iran, Yemen, or Israel.
    2. Strategic opportunism: Exploit Saudi insecurity to gain funds, oil, defence hardware, and training.
    3. Personal aggrandisement:Pakistan’s military elite aim to monetise “IOUs” from Riyadh and Washington.
    4. Regional calculus: Hopes trilateral axis will offset its strategic disadvantage against India.

    What does the SMDA mean for India?

    1. Energy linkages: India is the third-largest oil importer and among Saudi’s top trade partners.
    2. Diaspora factor: Largest expatriate community in Saudi Arabia, valued for skills and neutrality.
    3. Diplomatic capital: Post-2014 outreach has created defence and intelligence-sharing frameworks.
    4. Saudi balancing act: Riyadh assured Reuters that ties with India remain “robust,” acknowledging India’s nuclear status and geoeconomic heft.
    5. Implication: India must remain vigilant, building greater Arabian Sea synergies to counterbalance tactical moves by Pakistan.

    Conclusion

    The Saudi–Pakistan pact is less a robust security alliance and more a political insurance policy, crafted in haste amid shifting regional dynamics. While it temporarily reassures Riyadh and monetarily benefits Islamabad, its sustainability remains doubtful due to divergent threat perceptions, nuclear sensitivities, and overlapping U.S.–China rivalries. For India, the SMDA underscores the need to strengthen its energy diplomacy, diaspora leverage, and strategic partnerships with Riyadh, while maintaining watchfulness over Pakistan’s manoeuvres.

  • Turmoil, tragedy, and tenacity in Nepal

    Introduction

    In early September 2025, Nepal was rocked by its most intense youth uprising since the end of monarchy in 2008. Peaceful demonstrations against corruption and inequality, largely organised online, escalated into violent clashes, leaving 73 dead and vital government institutions in flames. The resignation of Oli and the appointment of Sushila Karki as interim Prime Minister has opened a critical transition. The protests underscore the growing role of Gen Z digital activism in reshaping political landscapes.

    Timeline of the protests

    1. 4 Sept 2025: Government orders registration/ban of 26 social media platforms (trigger).
    2. Early Sept (pre-8): Weeks of online organising; #NepoBabies and related trends circulate.
    3. 8 Sept 2025 (Day 1): Large peaceful gatherings at Maitighar Mandala; clashes erupt; official reports of first deaths (≈19 reported that night).
    4. 9 Sept 2025 (Day 2): Violence spreads; Parliament, Supreme Court, Singha Durbar attacked and some set on fire; casualty and injury figures climb.
    5. 10–12 Sept 2025: Army deployed to secure cities; Home Minister and Oli resign; negotiations with youth representatives begin.
    6. 12–14 Sept 2025: Sushila Karki sworn in as interim prime minister; Parliament dissolved; elections scheduled for March (caretaker mandate announced).

    How did legal restraints on digital space ignite a national revolt?

    1. Trigger — Social Media Ban: On 4 September 2025, the government ordered the blocking/registration of 26 social media platforms, including X, Facebook, and Instagram.
    2. Impact: This cut off Gen-Z’s primary space for organisation, expression, and economic activity, seen as a direct assault on civic freedom.
    3. Outcome: Scattered anger was transformed into coordinated protests.
    4. Example: Youth groups used Discord and TikTok to plan assemblies at Maitighar Mandala and coordinate marches towards Parliament.

    What were the structural grievances behind the uprising?

    1. Corruption & Elitism: Perceptions of elite capture, misuse of resources, and impunity fuelled resentment.
    2. Symbol of Rage: The #NepoKids / #NepoBabies campaign exposed politicians’ children flaunting luxury while ordinary youth faced precarity.
    3. Example: Viral clips contrasting lavish lifestyles with student unemployment intensified outrage.
    4. Data: Transparency International (2025): Nepal ranked 107/180 on the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI score: 34).

    Why did peaceful protests become deadly and destructive?

    1. Escalation: Initially peaceful gatherings on 8 September were dispersed using tear gas and reportedly live ammunition.
    2. Violence: Retaliatory riots followed; demonstrators targeted symbols of state power.
    3. Example: On 9 September, Parliament, Supreme Court, and Singha Durbar were set ablaze; crucial judicial records were damaged.
    4. Data: 72–73 deaths reported, with hundreds injured, mostly between ages 19–24.

    What immediate political fallout followed the unrest?

    1. Leadership Change: Home Minister resigned on 8 Sept; PM K.P. Sharma Oli stepped down on 9 Sept.
    2. Caretaker Transition: The Army mediated negotiations; Parliament was dissolved.
    3. Interim PM: Sushila Karki, former Chief Justice, sworn in on 12 Sept 2025, mandated to hold elections within six months.
      • Karki visited hospitals, assured investigations, and pledged accountability and timely polls.

    How did digital tools shape both mobilisation and misinformation?

    1. Mobilisation: Platforms like Discord, TikTok, and hashtags enabled rapid outreach, meme-culture, and youth identity in protests.
    2. Creativity: Anime/manga flags and viral videos energised Gen-Z demonstrations.
    3. Misinformation: False reports and AI-generated images (e.g., Pashupati Temple “burning”) created panic and confusion.
    4. Example: Fake claims about a senior politician’s family being killed circulated widely before being disproved.

    What are the main challenges facing Nepal’s interim rulers?

    1. Legitimacy Concerns: Traditional political parties, deposed MPs, and royalist factions question the constitutional mandate of the interim set-up.
    2. Balancing Act: The government must address youth expectations of anti-corruption and inclusivity while ensuring political buy-in from entrenched elites.
    3. Stability: Conducting free and fair elections by March 2026 without undermining the democratic spirit of Gen-Z protests remains the foremost task.
    4. Example: Political parties and royalists have already raised doubts over Karki’s legitimacy despite broad youth support.

    Implications for Nepal (domestic)

    • Political Legitimacy and Party Renewal
      • The protests revealed a deep erosion of trust in established parties.
      • Unless political parties reform and integrate youth aspirations into institutional politics, cycles of protest could continue.
      • Revamping youth wings and embracing inclusivity may be crucial for long-term stability.
      • (Echoes analysts’ calls for parties to redefine themselves in light of 1990 and 2006 lessons.)
    • Rule of Law and Accountability
      • Strong demands exist for independent investigations into the use of excessive force and arson during protests.
      • The credibility of Nepal’s democracy depends on whether security forces and political elites are held accountable.
      • Sushila Karki’s pledge to investigate abuses and compensate victims sets both a legal and moral benchmark.
    • Economic and Social Policy Pressure
      • With youth unemployment at 20%, migration pressures, and widening inequality, socio-economic grievances remain central.
      • The interim government faces urgent pressure to deliver short-term relief (jobs, anti-corruption crackdowns) while laying the groundwork for structural reforms in education, employment, and inclusivity.
      • Failure to deliver may reignite unrest and deepen distrust in democratic institutions.

    Implications for South Asia (regional)

    • Contagion Risk and Inspiration:
      • The Nepali uprising reflects a wider Gen-Z dissent pattern in Asia.
      • Similar youth-led movements in Sri Lanka (2022), Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines have challenged entrenched elites.
      • Nepal’s protests may inspire emulation across borders, intensifying regional instability.
    • Cross-Border Diplomacy & Stability:
      • Political turbulence in Kathmandu could strain bilateral relations with neighbours.
      • Instability may disrupt migration flows, remittances, and border trade.
      • Governments in South Asia may reassess youth policy, unemployment measures, and digital freedoms to preempt unrest.
    • Policy Lessons on Digital Platforms:
      • Nepal’s ban highlights the risks of hard regulation of social media.
      • Neighbouring states will closely observe whether bans quell dissent or provoke backlash.
      • The episode may shape future regional digital governance frameworks balancing free expression with misinformation control.

    Conclusion

    Nepal’s Gen Z uprising is both tragic and transformative. It highlights the power of digital natives to hold governments accountable, but also the dangers of violence and misinformation. The coming months will test whether Nepal can channel this energy into transparent, inclusive governance or relapse into instability.

    PYQ Linkage:

    [UPSC 2012] Discuss the contentious issues that have caused the prolonged

    constitutional logjam in Nepal.

    Linkage: The 2025 Gen Z protests in Nepal show that unresolved constitutional questions of inclusiveness, accountability, and representation remain central even after the 2015 Constitution. The uprising exposed youth anger at elite capture and exclusion of caste, ethnic, and gender groups — echoing the very fault lines that prolonged Nepal’s constitutional logjam post-2008 monarchy abolition. Thus, the recent turmoil is a continuation of the older struggle for a truly inclusive and accountable Nepali state.

  • Should India overlook boundary issues while normalizing ties with China?

    Introduction

    The India-China relationship has historically oscillated between cautious cooperation and sharp confrontation. The latest Modi–Xi meeting on the sidelines of the SCO Summit reopened bilateral trade, air connectivity, and emphasised peace at the border. Yet, the memory of the 2020 Galwan clashes looms large. At stake is the central question: Can India afford to set aside the boundary dispute for the sake of wider cooperation, or would that compromise its strategic autonomy and long-term security?

    Why is this debate in the news?

    Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s China visit marks the first high-level attempt in five years to restore normalcy after Galwan. The move is significant as it reflects India’s willingness to restart engagement despite recent military tensions and China’s continued strategic partnership with Pakistan. The revival of trade and connectivity signals pragmatism, but it raises the question of whether unresolved boundary tensions can remain compartmentalised. This sharp contrast with the hostility of recent years makes the issue both urgent and unprecedented.

    Can India normalise ties without resolving the boundary issue?

    1. Historical Precedent (1988, 1990s): Rajiv Gandhi’s visit to Beijing in 1988 initiated the idea of cooperation in other domains while border talks continued separately. Both sides agreed to maintain peace and tranquility along the LAC despite unresolved sovereignty disputes.
    2. Galwan Disruption (2020): The deadly clash exposed the fragility of this arrangement and highlighted China’s aggressive posture, a setback far greater than earlier skirmishes.
    3. Current Diplomatic Push: Since 2020, both countries have restored disengagement through buffer zones, with the 2024 Border Patrol Agreement marking an important breakthrough, including restoration of patrol rights in Demchok and Depsang.

    What explains China’s actions and insecurities?

    1. Article 370 Effect: Chinese analysts linked Galwan to India’s constitutional move in Jammu & Kashmir, which Beijing opposed.
    2. Economic Competition: During the U.S.-China trade war, Beijing feared India aligning with Washington to grab supply-chain opportunities.
    3. India’s Growth Factor: China increasingly perceives India’s demographic dividend and economic rise as a potential threat, at a time when its own population is shrinking.
    4. Manufacturing Prowess: Despite insecurities, China’s dominance is overwhelming—accounting for 45% of global manufacturing output, highlighted by India’s Economic Survey 2024-25.

    How fragile is the current normalisation?

    1. Possibility of Galwan-2: Any fresh military clash could derail progress entirely, as mistrust remains deep-rooted.
    2. Chinese Perception of India: Beijing no longer treats India as a peer but as a regional player to be managed, often subordinated to its ties with Pakistan.
    3. Infrastructure Build-up: China continues rapid military expansion on the Tibetan plateau, forcing India to invest heavily in its own LAC infrastructure.
    4. Diplomatic Asymmetry: Even as dialogue continues, China shows little real interest in a final border settlement.

    Can India-China cooperation coexist with China’s South Asia strategy?

    1. China’s Trilateral Mechanisms: Beijing is building frameworks like Pakistan-China-Afghanistan and Pakistan-China-Bangladesh, which aim to sideline India.
    2. Strategic Rivalry: China views India as a long-term competitor; India counters with its own diplomatic cards.
    3. Interdependence Factor: Despite rivalry, both economies remain connected—India dependent on China’s manufacturing, and China wary of India’s market potential.

    Conclusion

    India cannot afford to overlook the boundary issue entirely, as sovereignty and security form the bedrock of foreign policy. Yet, pragmatic engagement, through trade, connectivity, and multilateral platforms, remains equally important. A calibrated approach that safeguards territorial integrity while leveraging cooperation where possible may be the most realistic path forward.

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2014] With respect to the South China Sea, maritime territorial disputes and rising tension affirm the need for safeguarding maritime security to ensure freedom of navigation and ever flight throughout the region. In this context, discuss the bilateral issues between India and China.

    Linkage: The South China Sea tensions highlight China’s assertive behaviour in territorial disputes, which parallels its aggressive stance on the India-China boundary issue, especially after Galwan. Just as freedom of navigation is contested in the maritime domain, peace and tranquility along the LAC is fragile despite agreements like the 2024 Border Patrol pact. Thus, bilateral issues centre on sovereignty, security dilemmas, and China’s attempts to limit India’s strategic space in both continental and regional contexts.