Subject: Modern History

Why in the News?

PM recently remembered Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair, a nationalist and jurist who famously fought a courtroom battle against British officials involved in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919.

Nair’s stand in the courtroom is now a subject of a forthcoming film, Kesari Chapter 2.

About Sir Sankaran Nair:

• Born in 1857 in Mankara village, Kerala, Nair came from an aristocratic family.
• He was educated at Presidency College in Madras and pursued a law degree.
• Nair began his legal career with Sir Horatio Shepherd, Chief Justice of Madras High Court.
• In 1897, Nair became the youngest president of the Indian National Congress (Amravati (Mh) Session) and was appointed as a permanent judge of the Madras High Court in 1908.

Role in the Jallianwala Bagh Case:

• Nair challenged Michael O’Dwyer, the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, for his role in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), accusing him of following policies that led to the massacre.
• O’Dwyer sued Nair in England for defamation. Despite biased British courts, Nair refused to apologize, even when O’Dwyer offered to forgo the £500 penalty.
• The trial highlighted the bias in the British judicial system and fuelled Indian resentment against British rule.

Other Contributions:

• Nair made progressive rulings, like supporting inter-caste and inter-religious marriages and ruling against treating converts to Hinduism as outcasts.
• He supported India’s self-government and played a key role in expanding the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms (1919).
• In 1922, Nair critiqued Gandhi‘s methods in his work “Gandhi and Anarchy”.
• He helped draft the 1919 constitutional reforms, pointing out flaws in British rule, with many of his suggestions accepted.

[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following aroused a wave of popular indignation that led to the massacre by the British at Jallianwala Bagh? (a) The Arms Act (b) The Public Safety Act (c) The Rowlatt Act (d) The Vernacular Press Act

 

Why in the News?

On April 11, 2025, the Prime Minister paid tribute to Mahatma Jyotiba Phule on his 199th birth anniversary.

About Mahatma Phule

• Jyotirao Govindrao Phule, born on April 11, 1827, near Pune, was from the Mali caste.
• His father was a vegetable vendor, and his mother died when he was young.
• He pursued education at the Scottish Mission High School in Pune despite caste-based discrimination.
• He was inspired by Western thinkers like Thomas Paine and John Stuart Mill, fuelling his social justice dedication.
• At 13, he married Savitribai Phule, who became his partner in social reforms, particularly promoting education for women and marginalized communities.

His Contributions as a Social Reformer:

Educational Reforms:

• In 1848, Phule and his wife established India’s first girls’ school in Pune.
• He focused on educating Dalits and lower-caste groups, traditionally excluded from education.
• He founded night schools for working-class individuals, especially women.

Fighting Caste Discrimination:

• Phule criticized the caste system, calling it a means of oppression.
• In 1873, Phule’s book Gulamgiri condemned caste discrimination, comparing Dalits’ plight to slavery.
• Phule coined the term ‘Dalit’ to describe those outside the caste system.

Women’s Welfare and Empowerment:

• Phule advocated for widow remarriage and provided a dignified life for widows.
• In 1863, he opened homes to help pregnant widows.
• He co-founded an infanticide prevention center, tackling the killing of female infants.

Social Justice and Equality:

• Phule founded Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 to promote social equality, rational thinking, and religious reform.
• The Samaj rejected idolatry and supported a more rational spiritual approach.
• He broke the social stigma of untouchability by opening his house and water-well to the oppressed.

Religious and Philosophical Contributions:

• Phule was an advocate for critical thinking of religion, rejecting superstition and blind faith.
• He believed in equality and justice across religions and cultures.
• He was influenced by Bhakti saints like Sant Kabir and Sant Tukaram in his fight against social oppression.

His Literary Contributions:

• Gulamgiri (Slavery) (1873): Critiqued the caste system and called for Dalit liberation.
• Shetkaryacha Asud (Farmer’s Whip) (1881): Addressed the exploitation of farmers and advocated for land reforms.
• Sarvajanik Satya Dharma Poostak: Promoted rationalist thought and social justice.
• Tritiya Ratna (1855): A significant work in advocating for social equality.
• Brahmananche Kasab (1869): Criticized the exploitation by the Brahmin class.
• Powada: Chatrapati Shivajiraje Bhosle Yancha (1869): A work celebrating the legacy of Shivaji Maharaj.
• Satsar Ank (1885): Another rationalist work addressing societal issues.
• Akhandadi Kavyarachana: A literary contribution reflecting Phule’s thoughts on social justice.

[UPSC 2016] Satya Shodhak Samaj organized: (a) a movement for the upliftment of tribals in Bihar’ (b) a temple-entry movement in Gujarat (c) an anti-caste movement in Maharashtra (d) a peasant movement in Punjab

 

Why in the News?

The Lok Sabha recently passed a Bill to establish Tribhuvan Sahkari University in Anand, Gujarat, in honour of Tribhuvandas Kishibhai Patel, a visionary leader known as the “father of the cooperative movement” in India, particularly in dairy farming.

Who was Tribhuvandas Patel?

• Patel was born in 1903 to Kishibhai Patel and Lakhiba in Anand, Gujarat. He was an alumnus of Gujarat Vidyapith and was deeply influenced by Mahatma Gandhi.
• A dedicated freedom fighter, Patel participated in the civil disobedience movement, campaigns against untouchability, and the salt satyagraha.
• He was jailed in 1930 for his participation in the Salt Movement.
• He is widely recognized as the “father of the cooperative movement” in India, particularly for his transformative work in the dairy industry.

Patel’s Contribution to the Cooperative Movement

• In 1946, Patel founded the Kaira District Cooperative Milk Producers’ Union Limited (KDCMPUL), known later as Amul, to empower farmers and challenge the monopoly of the Polson Dairy in Anand, Gujarat.
• Patel collaborated with Verghese Kurien, a mechanical engineer, to modernize the dairy plant and increase milk production. This collaboration eventually led to the White Revolution in India.
• Patel was also instrumental in setting up the Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketing Federation (GCMMF), the National Dairy Development Board (NDDB), and the Institute of Rural Management Anand (IRMA), which played a pivotal role in cooperative dairy farming and rural development.
• After his retirement, Patel used funds from the cooperative community to establish the Tribhuvandas Foundation, focused on community health and welfare.

Cooperative Movement in India: Pre-Independence Era: The cooperative movement originated from informal local initiatives like Chit Funds and Mutual-Loan Associations in places like Madras Presidency and Punjab. The 1904 Cooperative Credit Societies Act formally recognized cooperatives. The Government of India Act, 1919 empowered provinces to legislate on cooperatives, leading to the Bombay Cooperative Society Act of 1925. Post-Independence Developments: Cooperatives became central to India’s economic strategies, particularly for rural development and social justice. The National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) (1963) and NABARD (1982) supported rural cooperatives and provided credit to farmers. The 97th Constitutional Amendment (2011) granted the right to form cooperatives under Article 19. The Ministry of Cooperation was formed in 2021 to strengthen the cooperative framework. The MSCS Amendment Act 2023 aims to improve governance and operational efficiency of cooperatives. Key Types of Cooperatives in India: Consumers’ Cooperatives: Provide affordable goods by removing intermediaries (e.g., Kendriya Bhandar). Producers’ Cooperatives: Support small producers by supplying essential materials. Cooperative Marketing Societies: Help producers market products collectively (e.g., Amul).

 

[UPSC 2011] In India, which of the following have the highest share in the disbursement of credit to agriculture and allied activities? (a) Commercial Banks (b) Cooperative Banks (c) Regional Rural Banks (d) Microfinance Institutions

 

Why in the News?

On March 19, the anniversary of the Muzhara movement is observed, marking a significant chapter in Punjab’s agrarian struggles.

About Muzhara Movement

• Muzharas were farmers who worked the land but had no ownership rights.
  • They were part of a larger class of landless peasants in Punjab, facing oppressive feudal systems.
• The biswedars (landlords), who took one-third of the produce, controlled the land.
  • This system led to economic exploitation, with a significant portion of the produce and profits going to the feudal landlords and, ultimately, the British colonial rulers.
• The muzharas were seeking ownership of the land they had tilled for generations, asserting their right to the land in opposition to both the feudal and colonial systems.
• In March 1949, when the biswedars tried to reclaim land from the muzharas, Kishangarh village became the epicentre of the struggle.
• A violent standoff between the muzharas and the Patiala police ensued, which resulted in the death of a police officer on March 17.
• The army intervened on March 19, leading to four muzharas being killed in the ensuing confrontation.

Other Contemporary Peasant’s Movements

	Details
Champaran Satyagraha (1917)	Led by Mahatma Gandhi in Bihar against the tinkathia system, where peasants were forced to grow indigo on part of their land. Resulted in the Champaran Agrarian Act (1918), which abolished oppressive practices.
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)	Organized in Gujarat after crop failures when the government refused to remit land revenue. Gandhi and Sardar Patel supported peasants in withholding revenue payments until demands were met.
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)	Led by Vallabhbhai Patel in Gujarat against a 30% hike in land revenue. The movement succeeded, and Patel earned the title “Sardar” for his leadership.
Tebhaga Movement (1946-47)	Initiated by the Kisan Sabha in Bengal, demanding a two-thirds share of produce for tenants instead of the customary half. Despite being suppressed violently, it highlighted peasant rights.
Telangana Movement (1946-51)	A communist-led peasant guerrilla struggle in Andhra Pradesh against feudal landlords and the Nizam’s oppressive regime. Achieved redistribution of land and improved

 

PYQ: [UPSC 2013] The demand for the Tebhaga Peasant Movement in Bengal was for: (a) the reduction of the share of the landlords from one-half of the crop to one-third, (b) the grant of ownership of land to peasants as they were the actual cultivators of the land, (c) the uprooting of Zamindari system and the end of serfdom, (d) writing off all peasant debts

 

Why in the News?

PM Modi recently questioned why the colonial-era Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, which allowed authorities to ban plays deemed seditious, defamatory, or obscene, remained in force 75 years after independence.

What is the Dramatic Performances Act, 1876?

• The Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, was a colonial-era law enacted by the British to suppress nationalist and anti-government sentiments in public performances.
• The Act empowered the government to ban, regulate, or censor public plays, pantomimes, and dramas that were deemed:
  • Scandalous or defamatory
  • Seditious or inciting disaffection against the government
  • Obscene or corrupting to public morality
• It also allowed magistrates to search, seize, and arrest performers and organizers without a warrant.
• The law prescribed up to three months of imprisonment and/or a fine for violations.

References to Article 19 and Article 372

• Conflict with Article 19(1)(a) – Right to Free Speech:

• • After independence, freedom of speech and expression was guaranteed under Article 19(1)(a).
  • The Allahabad High Court (1956) ruled the Act unconstitutional, stating it restricted free speech beyond reasonable limits.

• Exceptions Under Article 19(2):

• • Article 19(2) allows reasonable restrictions on free speech for: Security of the state, public order, morality, and defamation.
  • The court ruled that the Dramatic Performances Act exceeded these limits.

• Article 372 and Colonial Laws:

• • Article 372(1) of the Constitution states that laws in force before independence shall continue to be in effect unless repealed or modified by the Parliament.
  • Though invalidated in 1956, the law was formally repealed in 2018 under the Repealing and Amending (Second) Act, 2017.

PYQ: [2014] What do you understand by the concept of “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss. [2021] A legislation which confers on the executive or administrative authority an unguided and uncontrolled discretionary power in the matter of application of law violates which one of the following Articles of the Constitution of India?​ (a) Article 14 ​ (b) Article 28​ (c) Article 32 ​ (d) Article 44​

 

Why in the News?

Leaders from across the political spectrum paid tributes to the freedom fighter Chandra Shekhar Azad on his martyrdom day (27th February 1931).

Who was Chandra Shekhar Azad?

• Chandra Shekhar Azad (1906–1931) was a revolutionary who played a key role in India’s independence struggle.
• Born in Bhabhra, Madhya Pradesh, he joined Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement at 15 but turned to armed revolution after its suspension.
• He reorganized the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) alongside Bhagat Singh.
• Azad vowed never to be captured alive and sacrificed himself in a shootout at Alfred Park, Allahabad, on February 27, 1931.

His Contributions to the Freedom Struggle

• Non-Cooperation Movement (1921): Arrested at 15, he declared his name as “Azad” (Free) in court and was punished with 15 lashes.
• Joining HRA (1924): Became a member of Ram Prasad Bismil’s HRA and raised funds through political dacoities.
• Kakori Train Robbery (1925): Helped loot a British train carrying treasury money; escaped capture while others were sentenced.
• Reorganizing HSRA (1928): Transformed HRA into HSRA with Bhagat Singh, introducing socialist ideology.
• Assassination of John Saunders (1928): Avenged Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, personally eliminating a police officer in the escape.
• Attempt to Blow Up Lord Irwin’s Train (1929): Planned to assassinate Viceroy Lord Irwin, but the plan failed.
• Final Stand (1931): Surrounded by British police, killed three officers, ensured his comrade’s escape, and shot himself with his last bullet.

PYQ: [2020] Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss.

 

Why in the News?

Prime Minister paid tribute to Veer Savarkar on his death anniversary (26th February), acknowledging his contributions to India’s freedom movement.

About Veer Savarkar: Life, Contributions, and Legacy

	Details
Who was Veer Savarkar?	• Born on May 28, 1883, in Bhagur, Maharashtra. • Founded Abhinav Bharat Society (1904) for armed resistance. • Led India House in London (1906) and the Free India Society. • Arrested in 1910, sentenced to life imprisonment in Cellular Jail (Kala Pani, Andaman & Nicobar Islands). • Became President of the Hindu Mahasabha (1937-1943). • Died on February 26, 1966, after fasting till death.
His Contributions	• Advocated armed revolution against British rule. • Coined Hindutva (1923), defining Indian identity beyond religion. • Opposed Partition, emphasizing Hindu political unity. • Championed military nationalism over passive resistance. • Writings and ideology influenced Indian nationalist movements.
Literary Works	• The First War of Indian Independence (1909):  Reinterpreted the 1857 Revolt as a nationalist struggle. • Hindutva: Who is a Hindu? (1923): Laid the ideological foundation of Hindutva. • My Transportation for Life (1950): Memoirs of his imprisonment in Cellular Jail. • Six Glorious Epochs of Indian History: Advocated Hindu resistance against foreign invaders.
Controversies	• Gandhi Assassination Case (1948): Arrested but acquitted due to lack of evidence. • Mercy Petitions (1911-1924): Wrote clemency petitions for early release from prison, debated as tactical or compromising. • Opposition to Quit India Movement (1942): Rejected Gandhi’s call, favored military strength over civil disobedience. • Hindutva Ideology: Critics claim it fostered religious divisions, while supporters see it as reviving Hindu identity.

 

Why in the News?

On February 23, 2025, farmers protesting at the Punjab and Haryana borders are observing Pagri Sambhal Diwas in honor of Ajit Singh, a freedom fighter, revolutionary, and Bhagat Singh’s paternal uncle.

About the Pagri Sambhal Jatta Movement (1907)

• The Pagri Sambhal Jatta movement was a peasant uprising in Punjab against the oppressive British land laws that exploited farmers.
• The movement was led by Ajit Singh, Kishan Singh (Bhagat Singh’s father), and Lala Lajpat Rai, who mobilized farmers to resist these unfair policies.
• Farmers protested against three major British laws:

1. Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 – Restricted farmers from selling or mortgaging their land, favoring landlords and moneylenders.
2. Punjab Land Colonisation Act, 1906 – Allowed the British to take control of farmers’ land after their death instead of passing it to their heirs.
3. Doab Bari Act, 1907 – Deprived farmers of ownership rights and reduced them to contract workers.

• The British also raised taxes on agricultural land and irrigation, making it harder for farmers to sustain themselves.
• The slogan “Pagri Sambhal Jatta“, meaning “Take care of your turban, O farmer,” was coined by Banke Dayal, a nationalist poet, and became a symbol of self-respect and protest.
• The movement resulted in mass protests and acts of civil disobedience, forcing the British to roll back some clauses of these laws.
• Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai were arrested in May 1907 and exiled to Burma. Due to public pressure, they were released in November 1907.
• Fearing further persecution, Ajit Singh fled to Persia and later lived in Turkey, Brazil, Germany, and Italy, where he worked with other revolutionaries against British rule.
• The movement became a landmark in India’s freedom struggle, inspiring future farmers’ agitations, the Ghadar Movement, and Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary activities.

Who was Ajit Singh? Ajit Singh was a freedom fighter, revolutionary, and nationalist leader who played a crucial role in India’s independence movement. He was born on February 23, 1881, in Khatkar Kalan, Punjab, which is now part of Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar district. He was the elder brother of Kishan Singh, the father of Bhagat Singh, and played a key role in shaping Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary ideals. Ajit Singh co-founded the Bharat Mata Society, an organization that aimed to unite farmers and revolutionaries against British exploitation. Due to his active role in the Pagri Sambhal Jatta movement, he became a prime target of British authorities and was forced into exile for 38 years (1909-1947). He lived in Persia, Turkey, Brazil, Germany, and Italy, where he continued his revolutionary activities and worked with Lala Hardayal and Madame Cama. In March 1947, Ajit Singh returned to India, just a few months before India gained independence. However, due to prolonged illness, he passed away on August 15, 1947, the very day India became independent. Since 2021, February 23 has been observed as Pagri Sambhal Diwas, honoring Ajit Singh’s contributions to India’s independence and farmers’ rights.

 

PYQ: [2010] What was the immediate cause for the launch of the Swadeshi movement? (a) The partition of Bengal done by Lord Curzon. (b) A sentence of 18 months rigorous imprisonment imposed on Lokmanya Tilak. (c) The arrest and deportation of Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh; and passing of the Punjab Colonization Bill. (d) Death sentence pronounced on the Chapekar brothers.