Subject: Modern History

Why in the News?

On March 19, the anniversary of the Muzhara movement is observed, marking a significant chapter in Punjab’s agrarian struggles.

About Muzhara Movement

• Muzharas were farmers who worked the land but had no ownership rights.
  • They were part of a larger class of landless peasants in Punjab, facing oppressive feudal systems.
• The biswedars (landlords), who took one-third of the produce, controlled the land.
  • This system led to economic exploitation, with a significant portion of the produce and profits going to the feudal landlords and, ultimately, the British colonial rulers.
• The muzharas were seeking ownership of the land they had tilled for generations, asserting their right to the land in opposition to both the feudal and colonial systems.
• In March 1949, when the biswedars tried to reclaim land from the muzharas, Kishangarh village became the epicentre of the struggle.
• A violent standoff between the muzharas and the Patiala police ensued, which resulted in the death of a police officer on March 17.
• The army intervened on March 19, leading to four muzharas being killed in the ensuing confrontation.

Other Contemporary Peasant’s Movements

Why in the News?

PM Modi recently questioned why the colonial-era Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, which allowed authorities to ban plays deemed seditious, defamatory, or obscene, remained in force 75 years after independence.

What is the Dramatic Performances Act, 1876?

• The Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, was a colonial-era law enacted by the British to suppress nationalist and anti-government sentiments in public performances.
• The Act empowered the government to ban, regulate, or censor public plays, pantomimes, and dramas that were deemed:
  • Scandalous or defamatory
  • Seditious or inciting disaffection against the government
  • Obscene or corrupting to public morality
• It also allowed magistrates to search, seize, and arrest performers and organizers without a warrant.
• The law prescribed up to three months of imprisonment and/or a fine for violations.

References to Article 19 and Article 372

• Conflict with Article 19(1)(a) – Right to Free Speech:

• • After independence, freedom of speech and expression was guaranteed under Article 19(1)(a).
  • The Allahabad High Court (1956) ruled the Act unconstitutional, stating it restricted free speech beyond reasonable limits.

• Exceptions Under Article 19(2):

• • Article 19(2) allows reasonable restrictions on free speech for: Security of the state, public order, morality, and defamation.
  • The court ruled that the Dramatic Performances Act exceeded these limits.

• Article 372 and Colonial Laws:

• • Article 372(1) of the Constitution states that laws in force before independence shall continue to be in effect unless repealed or modified by the Parliament.
  • Though invalidated in 1956, the law was formally repealed in 2018 under the Repealing and Amending (Second) Act, 2017.

Why in the News?

Leaders from across the political spectrum paid tributes to the freedom fighter Chandra Shekhar Azad on his martyrdom day (27th February 1931).

Who was Chandra Shekhar Azad?

• Chandra Shekhar Azad (1906–1931) was a revolutionary who played a key role in India’s independence struggle.
• Born in Bhabhra, Madhya Pradesh, he joined Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement at 15 but turned to armed revolution after its suspension.
• He reorganized the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) alongside Bhagat Singh.
• Azad vowed never to be captured alive and sacrificed himself in a shootout at Alfred Park, Allahabad, on February 27, 1931.

His Contributions to the Freedom Struggle

• Non-Cooperation Movement (1921): Arrested at 15, he declared his name as “Azad” (Free) in court and was punished with 15 lashes.
• Joining HRA (1924): Became a member of Ram Prasad Bismil’s HRA and raised funds through political dacoities.
• Kakori Train Robbery (1925): Helped loot a British train carrying treasury money; escaped capture while others were sentenced.
• Reorganizing HSRA (1928): Transformed HRA into HSRA with Bhagat Singh, introducing socialist ideology.
• Assassination of John Saunders (1928): Avenged Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, personally eliminating a police officer in the escape.
• Attempt to Blow Up Lord Irwin’s Train (1929): Planned to assassinate Viceroy Lord Irwin, but the plan failed.
• Final Stand (1931): Surrounded by British police, killed three officers, ensured his comrade’s escape, and shot himself with his last bullet.

Why in the News?

Prime Minister paid tribute to Veer Savarkar on his death anniversary (26th February), acknowledging his contributions to India’s freedom movement.

About Veer Savarkar: Life, Contributions, and Legacy

Why in the News?

On February 23, 2025, farmers protesting at the Punjab and Haryana borders are observing Pagri Sambhal Diwas in honor of Ajit Singh, a freedom fighter, revolutionary, and Bhagat Singh’s paternal uncle.

About the Pagri Sambhal Jatta Movement (1907)

• The Pagri Sambhal Jatta movement was a peasant uprising in Punjab against the oppressive British land laws that exploited farmers.
• The movement was led by Ajit Singh, Kishan Singh (Bhagat Singh’s father), and Lala Lajpat Rai, who mobilized farmers to resist these unfair policies.
• Farmers protested against three major British laws:

1. Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 – Restricted farmers from selling or mortgaging their land, favoring landlords and moneylenders.
2. Punjab Land Colonisation Act, 1906 – Allowed the British to take control of farmers’ land after their death instead of passing it to their heirs.
3. Doab Bari Act, 1907 – Deprived farmers of ownership rights and reduced them to contract workers.

• The British also raised taxes on agricultural land and irrigation, making it harder for farmers to sustain themselves.
• The slogan “Pagri Sambhal Jatta“, meaning “Take care of your turban, O farmer,” was coined by Banke Dayal, a nationalist poet, and became a symbol of self-respect and protest.
• The movement resulted in mass protests and acts of civil disobedience, forcing the British to roll back some clauses of these laws.
• Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai were arrested in May 1907 and exiled to Burma. Due to public pressure, they were released in November 1907.
• Fearing further persecution, Ajit Singh fled to Persia and later lived in Turkey, Brazil, Germany, and Italy, where he worked with other revolutionaries against British rule.
• The movement became a landmark in India’s freedom struggle, inspiring future farmers’ agitations, the Ghadar Movement, and Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary activities.

Why in the News?

In a move to eliminate colonial practices and symbols from the Indian Armed Forces, Fort William in Kolkata, the headquarters of the Eastern Army Command, has been renamed Vijay Durg.

About the Vijay Durg (Fort William)

• It was originally built by the British in 1773, Fort William was named after King William III of England.
• It is located on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River in Kolkata, West Bengal.
• It served as a key British military stronghold during colonial rule.
• The first version of Fort William was built by the English East India Company in 1696.
• It had an inner bastion used as a prison, leading to the term “Black Hole of Calcutta”.
• The Black Hole of Calcutta Incident (1756) refers to the alleged imprisonment of British prisoners by Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah, where many reportedly suffocated to death due to overcrowding and lack of ventilation.
• After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, Robert Clive ordered its demolition, and a new fort was built, completed in 1773.
• Fort William College was established by Lord Wellesley in 1800 to train Company civil servants in Indian languages and customs, but it was closed in 1802.
• The present-day fort is octagonal in shape, made of brick and mortar, covering 70.9 acres.
  • It is now owned by the Indian Army and serves as the headquarters of the Eastern Command.

Significance of Renaming

• The new name is inspired by Vijay Durg Fort in Maharashtra, one of the oldest and most significant naval forts under Chhatrapati Shivaji.
• Vijay Durg served as a naval base for the Marathas, highlighting India’s indigenous military history.
• The renaming aligns with India’s broader initiative to remove colonial influences and promote native military traditions.
  • In September 2022, the Indian Navy replaced its British-era ensign with a new octagonal design inspired by Chhatrapati Shivaji’s royal seal.

Why in the News?

Punjab CM paid tribute to the Kuka martyrs at a function held at the Namdhari Shaheed Smarak in Malerkotla. The day commemorates the execution of 66 Namdhari Sikhs (Kukas) on January 17 and 18, 1872, by British colonial authorities.  

Who are the ‘Namdharis’?

• The Namdharis, also called Kukas, are a Sikh sect founded by Satguru Ram Singh on April 12, 1857, in Ludhiana, Punjab.
• The name Kuka derives from their distinctive high-pitched recitation of Gurbani (kook in Punjabi means “cry” or “scream”).
• Social Reforms:
  • Advocated against alcohol consumption, meat eating, and other social vices.
  • Promoted Swadeshi principles, urging people to boycott foreign goods, British services, and educational institutions.
• The movement served as a precursor to nationwide Non-Cooperation Movement, emphasizing self-reliance and resistance against colonial rule.

About the Kuka Rebellion

• The Kuka Rebellion was one of the localized uprisings against British rule after the Rebellion of 1857.
• The Namdharis actively opposed British policies, particularly cow slaughter, which became a focal point of their resistance.
• Key events leading to the rebellion:
  • In January 1872, Namdharis, led by Hira Singh and Lehna Singh, clashed with British authorities after a cow slaughter incident in Malerkotla.
  • They attacked the Malaudh Fort in Ludhiana, loyal to the British, but the rebellion was crushed.
• British Retaliation:
  • The British responded brutally, executing 49 Namdharis on January 17, 1872, and 17 more on January 18, 1872.
  • The Kukas were placed in front of cannons and blown up in a public spectacle to intimidate others.

Why in the News?

December 26, 2024, marks the 100th foundation day of the Communist Party of India (CPI). The CPI has played a pivotal role in India’s freedom struggle, social reforms, and political evolution.

About the Communist Party of India (CPI)

• Reasons for Formation:
  • Founded on December 26, 1925, at the Kanpur Conference, inspired by the 1917 Russian Revolution.
  • Earlier efforts included the Tashkent group (1920) led by M.N. Roy and Abani Mukherji, supported by the Comintern (Communist International).
  • Faced early repression through cases like:
    • Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case (1924).
    • Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929–1933).
  • Dissatisfaction with Gandhian methods and moderate nationalism.
  • Inspiration from the Soviet Revolution (1917) and global socialist movements.
• Split (1964):
  • Ideological rift during the Cold War over alignment with the Soviet Union or China.
  • Led to the creation of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) or CPI(M).

Prominent Leaders and Key Contributions

• Prominent Leaders:
  • M.N. Roy (1920s): Founder of the Tashkent group; advocated socialism and anti-colonialism.
  • Abani Mukherji (1920s): Drafted the Indian Communist Manifesto.
  • S.A. Dange (1924): Founding CPI member; labour leader implicated in the Kanpur Conspiracy Case.
  • Muzaffar Ahmed (1920s): Mobilized workers and peasants; key figure in AITUC (1920).
  • Shaukat Usmani (1920s–1930s) and M. Singaravelu (1925): Early CPI activists.
• Key Contributions:
  • Demand for Poorna Swaraj (1927):
    • Advocated for complete independence, influencing the Indian National Congress (INC).
  • Workers and Peasants Movements (1920s–1950s):
    • Mobilized workers through AITUC (1920) and peasants through All India Kisan Sabha (1936).
    • Led uprisings like the Telangana Rebellion (1946–1951).
  • Opposition to British Rule (1920s–1947):
    • Organized strikes and protests during the Quit India Movement (1942).

• Achievements of CPI

• • In the First Lok Sabha (1952–57), CPI was the single largest opposition party.
  • In 1957, CPI won the state elections in Kerala, becoming the first democratically elected communist government in independent India.