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Subject: Science and Technology

  • India lacks diagnostic tests for emerging infectious diseases

    Why in the news?

    The detection of a Zika virus infection in Pune has once again raised concerns regarding India’s readiness to diagnose emerging infectious diseases.

    Recent Outbreaks in Various Regions of India

    • Zika Virus: Recent cases of Zika virus in Pune and previous outbreaks in Kerala and Uttar Pradesh highlight sporadic but concerning outbreaks across India.
    • Avian Influenza: Ongoing outbreaks affecting poultry, with occasional human cases reported, indicating challenges in surveillance and testing.
    • Nipah Virus: Multiple outbreaks in Kerala and sporadic cases in West Bengal underscore the recurrent nature of Nipah virus outbreaks in India.

    India’s Lack of Significant Zika Surveillance and Other Diseases

    • Limited Diagnostic Capabilities: India faces challenges with the absence of approved diagnostic tests for the Zika virus, relying on clinical symptoms and selective testing, which may lead to underreporting.
    • Surveillance Gaps: There is a notable gap in systematic surveillance systems specifically tailored for Zika and other emerging infectious diseases, hampering early detection and containment efforts.
    • Infrastructure Deficiencies: The country’s diagnostic infrastructure outside major institutes is inadequate, affecting the timely identification and response to outbreaks of diseases like Zika, Nipah, and avian influenza.
    • Dependency on Apex Institutes: Diagnostic facilities are largely concentrated in apex national institutes, limiting accessibility and delaying the implementation of crucial public health measures during outbreaks.

    Impacts of Unavailability of Infrastructure

    • Delayed Response: Lack of accessible diagnostics delays the identification and isolation of cases, contact tracing, and implementation of containment measures during outbreaks.
    • Loss of Time: Delays in releasing genomic sequences and validating diagnostic tests impede the rapid development and deployment of effective diagnostics.

    Way Forward (Role of ICMR)

    • Enhanced Surveillance: ICMR (Indian Council of Medical Research) should lead efforts to decentralize testing facilities, ensuring availability at district and sub-district levels.
    • Capacity Building: Develop accessible and affordable diagnostic tests for Zika, Nipah, and avian influenza, leveraging lessons from COVID-19 testing infrastructure expansion.
    • Genomic Surveillance: Establish a system for the rapid release of whole genome sequences into public repositories like GISAID to enhance understanding and response capabilities.
    • Collaboration: Foster collaboration with industry and research institutions to streamline diagnostic test approvals and improve preparedness for future outbreaks.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology was sought to aid the management of the pandemic. (UPSC IAS/2020)

  • What was the tussle over Covaxin IPR?

    Why in the News?

    • Bharat Biotech International Limited (BBIL), maker of the indigenous coronavirus vaccine Covaxin, admitted to an “inadvertent error” in patent filings. The error involved failing to include scientists from the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) as co-inventors in the patent filings.

    COVAXIN Story

    • BBIL patented the process of making a batch of vaccines from virus strains provided by ICMR-NIV (National Institute of Virology).
    • ICMR-NIV’s role involved extracting viruses, identifying characteristics, conducting tests, and qualifying strains for vaccine development.
      • ICMR funded these clinical trials with â‚č35 crore and incurred costs in developing Covaxin.
      • In return, ICMR was to receive 5% of the royalties BBIL earned from the sale of Covaxin.

    Vaccine Patents in India 

    • In India, patents, including those for vaccines, are governed by the Patents Act, 1970, and its subsequent amendments.
    • This act aligns with the TRIPS Agreement (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) under the World Trade Organization (WTO).

    Key Provisions of the Patents Act, 1970:

    • Patentable Inventions:
        • An invention must be novel, involve an inventive step, and be capable of industrial application.
        • Section 3 of the Patents Act outlines what are not considered inventions, which includes methods of treatment, and processes for medicinal, surgical, curative, prophylactic, diagnostic, therapeutic, or other treatments of human beings.
    • India grants both process and product patents:
      • Product Patents: Grant a monopoly over a specific drug.
      • Process Patents: Prevent competitors from using the same sequence of steps to create a similar product.
    • Compulsory Licensing:
      • Under Section 84, compulsory licenses can be issued if the patented invention is not available to the public at a reasonably affordable price, or if the reasonable requirements of the public are not being met.
    • Bolar Provision:
      • Section 107A allows the use of patented inventions, including vaccines, for the purpose of research and development to obtain regulatory approval before the patent expires.

    Why was the ICMR not included?

    • Bharat Biotech initially excluded ICMR from patent applications because they viewed the ICMR’s role primarily as providing virus strains and conducting clinical trials, rather than being directly involved in the technical processes of vaccine development.
    • There might have been a miscommunication or oversight regarding the understanding of intellectual property rights and inventorship between BBIL and ICMR initially.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Bringing out the circumstances in 2005 which forced amendment to the section 3(d) in Indian Patent Law, 1970, discuss how it has been utilized by the Supreme Court in its judgement in rejecting Novartis’ patent application for ‘Glivec’. Discuss briefly the pros and cons of the decision. (200 words)

    [2014] In a globalized world, Intellectual Property Rights assume significance and are a source of litigation. Broadly distinguish between the terms—Copyrights, Patents and Trade Secrets.

  • Activated Carbon Production from Coconut Husks for Supercapacitors

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at Government College for Women, Thiruvananthapuram, have developed a way to make activated carbon from coconut husks, which are a common leftover from farming in Kerala. This activated carbon is well-suited for making supercapacitors.

    Back2Basics: Supercapacitors

    • Supercapacitors, also known as ultra-capacitors or electrochemical capacitors, are energy storage devices that bridge the gap between conventional capacitors and batteries.
    • They store energy through the electrostatic separation of charges rather than through chemical reactions as in batteries.
    • This allows supercapacitors to charge and discharge much faster than batteries.

    Key Characteristics:

    • High Power Density: Supercapacitors can deliver and accept charge much more rapidly than batteries.
    • Long Cycle Life: They can endure millions of charge-discharge cycles without significant degradation.
    • Wide Operating Temperature Range: Supercapacitors perform well in a broad range of temperatures, making them suitable for various applications.

    Structure and Components:

    • Electrodes: Made of materials like activated carbon, carbon aerogels, or graphene, which have high surface areas.
    • Electrolyte: The medium that allows ionic conductivity between the electrodes, typically a liquid or gel.
    • Separator: A porous membrane that prevents electrical contact between the electrodes but allows ionic movement.

    What is Activated Carbon?

    • Activated Carbon, also known as activated charcoal, is a highly porous form of carbon.
    • It is processed to have small, low-volume pores with increased surface area available for adsorption or chemical reactions.
    • It is widely used for purification, decontamination, and as a filtration medium.
    • Key Characteristics:
      • High Surface Area: Due to its extensive network of pores, activated carbon has a very high surface area, typically ranging from 500 to 1500 mÂČ/g.
      • Porosity: The structure includes micropores, mesopores, and macropores, allowing it to adsorb a variety of molecules.

    How is it produced?

    • Activated carbon is produced from carbonaceous source materials such as coconut shells, peat, wood, coir, lignite, coal, and petroleum pitch.
    • The production involves two main steps:
    1. Carbonization: The raw material is subjected to high temperatures (600-900°C) in an inert atmosphere (usually nitrogen or argon) to remove volatile components.
    2. Activation/Oxidation: The carbonized material is treated with oxidizing agents (such as steam or carbon dioxide) at high temperatures (800-1000°C) to develop a porous structure.

    Types:

    • Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC): Finely ground carbon particles primarily used in liquid phase applications.
    • Granular Activated Carbon (GAC): Larger particles used in both liquid and gas phase applications, such as water and air filtration.
    • Extruded Activated Carbon (EAC): Cylindrical pellets used mainly for gas phase applications due to their low pressure drop and high mechanical strength.
    • Impregnated Activated Carbon: Activated carbon treated with chemicals to enhance its adsorption capacity for specific contaminants.

    Applications:

    • Water Treatment: Removes contaminants like chlorine, odors, and organic compounds from drinking water.
    • Air Purification: Adsorbs volatile organic compounds (VOCs), odors, and airborne pollutants.
    • Medical Uses: Used in poisoning cases to absorb toxins in the gastrointestinal tract.
    • Industrial Processes: Utilized in the recovery of solvents, purification of gases, and in gold purification.
    • Food and Beverage: Helps in decolorization and purification processes in sugar, wine, and juice production.

    About Coconut Husk-Derived Activated Carbon

    • Coconut husk-derived activated carbon is a sustainable and efficient green solution for high-performance supercapacitors.
    • This material is readily available, low-cost, and eco-friendly.
    • It was produced by Microwave-Assisted Method designed at the Centralised Common Instrumentation Facility (CCIF) at the college.

    Importance of Supercapacitors

    • Energy Storage: Supercapacitors have significantly higher capacitance and energy storage capacity compared to conventional capacitors.
    • Search for Ideal Material: Finding the ideal supercapacitor electrode material has been a significant challenge in sustainable energy storage solutions.

    Research Findings:

    • Efficiency: Prototype supercapacitors made from coconut husk-derived activated carbon are four times more efficient than existing supercapacitors.
    • Cost-Effective and Efficient: Activated carbon produced using this technology is inexpensive and exhibits exceptional supercapacitor capability.

  • Why Indian-origin astronaut Sunita Williams is stuck in space?  

    Why in the News?

    The scheduled return of the Starliner spacecraft, which transported NASA astronauts Sunita Williams and Butch Wilmore to the International Space Station (ISS) earlier this month, has been delayed.

    What is the Starliner mission?

    • Objective: The Starliner Crew Flight Test mission aimed to transport NASA astronauts Sunita Williams and Butch Wilmore to the International Space Station (ISS) and demonstrate the spacecraft’s capability to safely ferry crew to and from low-Earth orbit (LEO).
    • Craft Description: CST-100 Starliner, developed by Boeing in collaboration with NASA’s Commercial Crew Program, is designed to accommodate up to seven passengers or a mix of crew and cargo for LEO missions. It is reusable up to 10 times with a turnaround time of six months.
    • Significance: Marks Boeing’s contribution to NASA’s efforts since the retirement of the Space Shuttle Program in 2011, alongside SpaceX’s Dragon spacecraft, which first delivered cargo in 2012 and transported astronauts in 2020.

    What has caused the delay?

    • Technical Issues: Multiple setbacks delayed the mission, including a faulty pressure valve on the Atlas V upper stage, engineering problems with other mechanisms, and issues with a spacecraft valve regulating oxidisers.
    • Specific Challenges: Post-launch, Starliner encountered five helium leaks, malfunctioning maneuvering thrusters, and a propellant valve failure, necessitating mid-mission fixes and assessments.

    What would happen to the astronauts?

    • Current Status: Sunita Williams and Butch Wilmore remain aboard the ISS, where they are conducting research and experiments. The spacecraft can stay docked for up to 45 days, and the ISS has sufficient supplies for extended periods.
    • Contingency Plan: If safety concerns persist or the Starliner issues cannot be resolved in time, the astronauts may return to Earth aboard SpaceX’s Dragon spacecraft, currently also docked at the ISS.

    Way forward ( what can NASA do?) 

    • Thorough Technical Review: NASA should conduct a comprehensive technical review of the Starliner spacecraft’s systems and components to identify the root causes of the multiple issues encountered during the mission.
    • Enhanced Mission Preparedness: NASA should prioritise enhancing mission preparedness protocols for commercial crew missions, including stricter pre-launch checks, contingency planning for mid-mission anomalies, and robust communication and coordination between mission control and astronauts aboard the ISS. This proactive approach can mitigate risks and ensure smoother operations in future missions.

    Mains PYQ: 

    Q What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? (UPSC IAS/2019)

  • Geoportals for Enhanced Rural Land Records and Emergency Management

    Why in the News?

    • The Union Ministry of Science and Technology launched two Geoportals: ‘Bhuvan Panchayat (Ver. 4.0)’ for rural land records and ‘National Database for Emergency Management (NDEM Ver. 5.0)’.
      • These portals were developed by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO).
      • These geospatial tools provide high-resolution satellite imagery of 1:10K scale for various locations across the country.

    About Bhuvan Panchayat (Ver. 4.0)

    • This portal supports “Space-based Information Support for Decentralized Planning (SISDP)”.
    • It aims to empower citizens at the grassroots level by providing real-time land record data and reducing dependency on local administration and corruption.
    • It promotes ease of living through digitalisation and better land revenue management.
    • By providing real-time data accessible to citizens, it reduces opportunities for corruption at the local level.
    • It enhances transparency and efficiency in land record management, aiding in effective governance and planning.

    About National Database for Emergency Management (NDEM Ver. 5.0)

    • This portal provides space-based inputs on natural disasters, aiding in disaster risk reduction in India and neighbouring countries.
    • It establishes an effective early warning system to proactively prevent disasters and monitor land use changes.
    • A command centre has been established to monitor situations and provide valuable inputs continuously.
    • The portal is designed to assist not only India but also neighbouring countries in disaster management.
    • It enhances coordination between various agencies and local authorities for effective disaster response and management.

    PYQ:

    [2023] With reference to the Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme, consider the following statements :

    1. To implement the scheme, the Central Government provides 100% funding.
    2. Under the Scheme, Cadastral Maps are digitized.
    3. An initiative has been undertaken to transliterate the Records of Rights from local language to any of the languages recognized by the Constitution of India.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2, and 3

  • Motor Neuron Disease (MND)

    Why in the News?

    The annual conference on Motor Neuron Disease (MND) ‘Awareness, Care and Management’ was held at NIMHANS.

    What is Motor Neuron Disease (MND)?

    • MND is a condition that affects the nerves in the brain and spinal cord, which are responsible for controlling your muscles.
    • Over time, these nerves (called motor neurons) stop working properly, leading to muscle weakness and wasting away.

    Types of MND:

    1. Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): The most common type. It affects both upper and lower motor neurons, leading to weakness in various body parts.
    2. Progressive Bulbar Palsy (PBP): Affects the nerves in the brainstem, leading to problems with speaking and swallowing.
    3. Progressive Muscular Atrophy (PMA): Affects only the lower motor neurons, causing muscle weakness and wasting.
    4. Primary Lateral Sclerosis (PLS): Affects only the upper motor neurons, causing stiffness and movement difficulties.

    Causes of MND:

    • Genetic Factors: In some families, MND can be inherited due to specific gene mutations.
    • Environmental Factors: Exposure to certain toxins, viruses, or physical injuries might contribute, but this is less clear.
    • Age and Gender: It usually affects people between the ages of 50 and 70 and is slightly more common in men.

    Symptoms:

    • Muscle Weakness: Starts in one part of the body, like an arm or leg, and gradually spreads.
    • Muscle Cramps and Twitching: Small, involuntary muscle movements.
    • Difficulty Speaking and Swallowing: Due to weakness in the muscles used for these functions.
    • Breathing Problems: In advanced stages, muscles that control breathing can be affected.
    • Emotional Changes: Some people might experience changes in behavior or thinking.

    Diagnosis:

    • Clinical Examination: A doctor examines your symptoms and medical history.
    • Electromyography (EMG): Tests the electrical activity of your muscles.
    • Nerve Conduction Studies (NCS): Checks how well your nerves send signals.
    • MRI: Scans to rule out other conditions.
    • Genetic Testing: To check for inherited forms of MND.

    Treatment:

    There is no cure for MND, but treatments can help manage symptoms and improve quality of life.

    1. Medications:
      • Riluzole: Can slow down the progression of ALS.
      • Edaravone: Another drug that may slow down the decline in daily activities.
      • Symptomatic Treatments: For muscle cramps, excess saliva, and emotional symptoms.
    2. Therapies:
      • Physical Therapy: Helps maintain muscle strength and mobility.
      • Occupational Therapy: Aids in performing daily activities.
      • Speech Therapy: Assists with speech and swallowing difficulties.
      • Respiratory Therapy: Supports breathing issues.

    Back2Basics: National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro-Sciences (NIMHANS)

    Details
    Location Bangalore, India
    Affiliation Autonomous institute under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India
    Ranking Ranked 4th best medical institute in India by the “National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF)”
    History
    • Founded in 1847 as the Bangalore Lunatic Asylum.
    • Renamed as the Mental Hospital in 1925.
    • Amalgamated with the All India Institute of Mental Health (AIIMH) in 1974 to form NIMHANS.
    • Conferred with deemed university status by the University Grants Commission in 1994.
    • Declared an Institute of National Importance by an act of parliament in 2012.
    Governance
    • Operates with academic autonomy under the “Societies Registration Act, 1860”.
    • Prioritises service, manpower development, and research in mental health and neurosciences.
    • A multidisciplinary integrated approach was adopted for translating research results into practice.
    Funding Receives resources for academic and research activities from national and international funding organisations.
    Outreach
    • Engages in mental health outreach initiatives including critiquing mental health reports and collaborating with government agencies for training and counseling.
    • Known for diagnosing and treating various mental health conditions including depression and neurobiological disorders.

  • India-Kenya Partnership to Boost Africa’s Space Capabilities

    Why in the News?

    • India has shown interest in partnering with Kenya to develop and expand Africa’s space capabilities for predicting and monitoring extreme weather events.
      • Kenya aims to be an active player in the global space economy, projected to grow significantly by 2035.

    Conference Highlights and Recommendations

    • Conference Conclusion: Calls for more resources for sustainable space activities, including accurate weather and climate event monitoring.
    • Awareness and Innovations: The expo, themed ‘Space technology for societal benefits,’ aimed to raise awareness about space opportunities for societal benefits like climate change mitigation and socio-economic development.
    • Support for Private Sector: Experts recommended that African governments support private sector innovations for data commercialization and explore funding models to de-risk the space sector.
    • STEM Education: Emphasis on boosting national capabilities in space science, breaking entry barriers for women, and promoting STEM education.

    India-Kenya Space Collaboration

    The India-Kenya Space Collaboration particularly aims for:

    • Addressing Food Security: Space technology will be crucial for food security, providing accurate early warning systems for farmers and real-time monitoring for climate change mitigation.
    • Sustainable Development: Space technology integration offers enhanced data for informed decision-making, essential for Kenya’s sustainable development.
    • Regional Collaboration: Kenya is pursuing collaboration on peaceful uses of outer space with African countries such as South Africa, Angola, Rwanda, Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan, Egypt, Algeria, Nigeria, and Ghana.
    • Capacity Development: Focus on developing indigenous capacity in space systems engineering and utilising space services for socio-economic development through joint projects.

    Kenyan endeavours so far  

    • Earth Observation Centre: Plans to establish a Centre for Earth Observation at the Luigi Broglio Malindi Space Centre.
    • International Training Centre: Partnership with the Italian Space Agency to establish a Training Centre for Space Education, enhancing national and regional capabilities.

    Back2Basics: India-Kenya Relations

    Historical Ties:

    • Early Connections: Trade between India and the Swahili Coast dates back to ancient times, as documented in the ‘Periplus of the Erythraean Sea’ (60 CE).
    • Colonial Era: Both nations share a legacy of struggle against colonialism, with Indian communities actively supporting Kenya’s freedom struggle.

    Diplomatic Relations:

    • Establishment of Diplomatic Presence: India set up the office of Commissioner for British East Africa residents in Nairobi in 1948, and a High Commission was established following Kenya’s independence in 1963. An Assistant High Commission is also located in Mombasa.
    • High-Level Visits: Numerous high-level visits by Indian leaders, including Presidents and Prime Ministers, have strengthened bilateral ties.

    Bilateral Trade:

    • Trade Agreement: The India-Kenya Trade Agreement signed in 1981 granted both nations Most Favoured Nation status.
    • Indian Exports to Kenya: Petroleum products, pharmaceuticals, steel products, machinery, yarn, vehicles, and power transmission equipment.
    • Kenyan Exports to India: Soda ash, vegetables, tea, leather, and metal scrap.
    • Investment: India is the second-largest investor in Kenya, with over 60 major Indian companies operating in sectors like manufacturing, real estate, pharmaceuticals, telecom, IT & ITES, banking, and agro-based industries.

    Development Cooperation:

    • Development Assistance: India provides loans, credit, and developmental support to Kenya, including capacity-building initiatives such as scholarships for Kenyan students.
    • Agricultural Support: India aids in agrarian development by supplying machinery and facilitating technology transfer.
    • Healthcare Contributions: India is a key supplier of pharmaceuticals to Kenya and has supported healthcare initiatives, including donating 1.12 million doses of the Covishield vaccine in 2021.
    • Environmental Conservation: Cheetahs under the reintroduction project are also being brought from Kenya.

    Cultural and Diaspora Links:

    • Indian Community: Indians have a long-standing presence in Kenya, contributing significantly to its society and economy.
    • Official recognition: In 2017, the Kenyan government recognized the Indian descent as the 44th tribe of the country.

    International Cooperation:

    • Common Interests: Both nations share interests in various international forums, including the Commonwealth, Non-Aligned Movement, and Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA).
    • Regional Engagement: Kenya is an active member of the African Union, with which India has long-standing connections.

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] Increasing interest of India in Africa has its pro and cons. Critically Examine.

  • Chang’e 6 Lunar Probe

    Why in the News?

    • On June 25, Chang’e-6 became the world’s first spacecraft to bring back samples from the far side of the Moon.
      • Chang’e-6 successfully returned with samples from the lunar far side, making China the first country to achieve this feat.

    About Chang’e-6 Mission 

    • The mission lasted 53 days, starting with a launch on May 3, 2024, and ending with the return capsule landing on June 25, 2024.
    • The lander descended into the South Pole-Aitken basin, one of the largest impact basins in the solar system, believed to contain material from the lunar mantle.
    • The lander used robotic scoops and drills to collect about 2 kilograms of lunar material, including both surface soil and subsurface samples.

    Components of Chang’e-6 

    1. Lander: Equipped with drills and scoops for sample collection.
    2. Ascender: Transported samples from the lunar surface to lunar orbit.
    3. Orbiter: Carried the samples from lunar orbit back to Earth.
    4. Returner: Brought the samples safely back to Earth.

    Collaboration and Payloads

    The mission carried instruments from international partners, including:

    • French DORN: Studied lunar dust and volatiles.
    • Italian INRRI: Measured distances using a retroreflector.
    • Swedish NILS: Detected negative ions on the lunar surface.
    • Pakistani ICUBE-Q CubeSat: Imaged the lunar surface and obtained magnetic field data.

    Scientific Goals  

    • Sample Analysis: Scientists aim to learn more about the Moon’s internal structure and the differences between its near and far sides.

    China’s Lunar Exploration Program

    • Chang’e-6 follows previous missions under China’s Lunar Exploration Program, marking the next step in incremental technological advancements.
    • Phases of Exploration: The program has four phases:
    1. First Phase: Reaching lunar orbit, completed by Chang’e 1 (2007) and Chang’e 2 (2010).
    2. Second Phase: Landing and roving, achieved by Chang’e 3 (2013) and Chang’e 4 (2019).
    3. Third Phase: Sample collection and return, accomplished by Chang’e 5 (2020) and Chang’e 6 (2024).
    4. Fourth Phase: Developing a robotic research station near the Moon’s South Pole, aiming for crewed lunar landings in the 2030s.

    Previous Lunar Sample Missions

    • Apollo 11 Mission (1969): The US mission brought 22 kg of lunar material, including 50 rocks.
    • Luna 16 Mission (1970): Soviet robotic mission brought lunar samples to Earth.
    • Chang’e-5 Mission (2020): Predecessor to Chang’e-6, returned 2 kg of lunar soil from the near side.

    Significance of Sample Return Missions

    • Laboratory Analysis: Allows the use of sophisticated instruments to study the chemical, isotopic, mineralogical, structural, and physical properties of samples.
    • Long-term Preservation: Samples can be preserved and re-examined by future generations with advanced technology.
    • Technological Feat: Recovering samples from the far side is a significant technological achievement.
    • Step Towards Human Exploration: Success of Chang’e-6 is seen as a step towards China’s goal of landing astronauts on the Moon by 2030.
    • Launch Pad for Deep Space: The Moon could serve as a base for future deep space missions and extraterrestrial exploration.

    Outcome: New Lunar Race

    • Global Participation: India, China, Japan, the US, and Russia launched lunar missions in 2023.
    • Future Missions: Over 100 Moon missions by governments and private companies are expected by 2030.
    • Long-term Goals: Unlike the 20th-century space race, today’s missions aim to establish a long-term presence and use lunar resources.

    India’s Chandrayaan-4 Mission

    • Chandrayaan-4, under development by ISRO, will also be a sample return mission to be launched tentatively by 2028.
    • Chandrayaan-3 landed near the Moon’s South Pole last year, about 600 km from the target area for Chandrayaan-4.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology helped India in its socio-economic development?

  • China-France launches SVOM Satellite for Gamma-Ray Burst Study

    Why in the News?

    The Space Variable Objects Monitor (SVOM) satellite jointly developed by China and France was launched from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center.

    About Space Variable Objects Monitor (SVOM)

    • The SVOM is designed to study gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) resulting from explosive cosmic events like black hole births and neutron star collisions.
    • It is the first astronomy satellite developed jointly by China and France, following their collaboration on an oceanographic satellite launched in 2018.

    Importance of Studying Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs)

    • GRBs are highly energetic bursts of gamma rays, lasting from less than a second to several minutes, occurring in distant parts of the universe.GRBs can erupt with a luminosity a quintillion times that of the Sun.
    • Types of GRBs:
    1. Short GRBs: Result from collisions of neutron stars or a neutron star with a black hole, lasting less than two seconds, often followed by kilonovas.
    2. Long GRBs: Result from the explosive deaths of massive stars, lasting two seconds or longer.

    Mission and Objectives of SVOM

    • Primary Objective: To search for and study GRBs across the universe.
    • Data Collection: Measure and analyze electromagnetic radiation properties of GRBs.
    • Scientific Goals: Unlock mysteries about the universe’s evolution and gravitational waves, which are often associated with neutron star collisions.
    • Real-time Detection: Transmit GRB data to ground control within about one minute, enabling coordinated observations with ground-based stations globally.

    Features and Capabilities of SVOM

    • Satellite Specifications: Weighs 930 kg and is equipped with four payloads, two developed by France and two by China.
    • French Contributions: ECLAIRs and MXT telescopes to detect and capture GRBs.
    • Chinese Contributions:
    1. Gamma Ray Burst Monitor (GRM): Measures the spectrum of GRBs.
    2. Visible Telescope (VT): Detects and observes visible emissions immediately after a GRB.
    • Orbit Details: Placed in a low Earth orbit at an altitude of 625 km, with an orbital period of 96 minutes.

    Significance of SVOM’s Findings

    • Early Universe Insights: Aim to detect the earliest GRBs, providing information on the universe’s early stages and evolution.
    • Kilonova Detection: Capability to search for kilonovas, enhancing understanding of stellar evolution and the origin of heavy elements like gold and silver in the universe.

    PYQ:

    [2019] Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant ‘blackholes’ billions of light-years away from the Earth. What is the significance of this observation?

    (a) ‘Higgs boson particles’ were detected.

    (b) ‘Gravitational waves’ were detected.

    (c) Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through ‘wormhole’ was confirmed.

    (d) It enabled the scientists to understand ‘singularity’.

  • Nuclear Study provides major update on Plutonium Isotope Fission

    Why in the News?

    Recently a study was conducted on Prompt Fission Neutron Spectrum (PFNS) by the US. This study holds significance for design updates in India’s second stage of its nuclear power programme.

    India’s Progress in Nuclear Energy

    On March 4, India advanced to the second stage of its nuclear power programme by beginning the core-loading process of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at the Madras Atomic Power Station in Kalpakkam. 

    India’s 3-stage Nuclear Power Program:

    Description Timeline
    Stage 1 Relies on pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs) using natural uranium as fuel. Initiated in the 1950s;

    Operational since the 1960s
    Stage 2 Focuses on developing fast breeder reactors (FBRs) using plutonium-239 produced in Stage 1. Initiated in the 1970s;

    Development phase
    Stage 3 Involves the development of thorium-based reactors utilizing India’s significant thorium reserves. Initiated in the late 1980s/early 1990s;

    Research & Development phase

    What is Prompt Fission Neutron Spectrum (PFNS)?

    • Definition: PFNS refers to neutrons emitted right after a Pu-240 nucleus captures a neutron but before it reaches a stable state.
    • Previous Studies: To date, only one study has investigated PFNS for Pu-240-induced fission at 0.85 mega-electron-volt (MeV). Recently, researchers in the U.S. conducted a second study with neutrons of higher energy than 0.85 MeV.
    • New Findings: The findings reveal significant differences between predicted and measured PFNS, aiding reactor designers and nuclear medicine practitioners.

    About Plutonium-240 and its Fission

    • Neutron Capture: When a Pu-239 nucleus captures a neutron, it can either undergo fission or become Pu-240.
      • Pu-240 is common in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapon test fallout.
    • Pu-240 Behavior: Pu-240 capturing a neutron typically turns into Pu-241.
      • If Pu-240 undergoes fission, there’s uncertainty about the energy of its fission products.
      • Current models use complex calculations to estimate this output.

    Do you know?

    • Plutonium is created from Uranium-238 in nuclear reactors.
    • Plutonium-239 is a weapon-grade fissile material (i.e. used to make nuclear weapons).
      • Pu-239 and Pu-240 are by-products of nuclear reactor operations and nuclear bomb explosions.

    Relevance of PFNS Study to India’s PFBR

    • PFBR Use: The PFBR uses plutonium from CANDU (Canada Deuterium Uranium) reactor spent fuel, which contains Pu-240. Reprocessed PFBR spent fuel will also contain Pu-240.
    • Importance of New Data: New data on Pu-240 behaviour is essential for improving reactor efficiency and safety.

    Production and Characteristics of Pu-240

    • Creation of Pu-239: Pu-239 is created when U-238 is exposed to neutrons in a reactor. As Pu-239 captures neutrons, it turns into Pu-240, which builds up over time.
    • Spontaneous Fission: Pu-240 undergoes spontaneous fission, emitting alpha particles, and is considered a contaminant in weapons-grade plutonium, where its composition is kept below 7%.
    • Reactor-Grade Plutonium: Plutonium with more than 19% Pu-240 is classified as reactor-grade.

    Experimental Findings on PFNS

    • Research at LANSCE: Researchers at Los Alamos Neutron Science Centre (LANSCE) conducted tests by bombarding a pure Pu-240 sample with neutrons of 0.01-800 MeV energy.
    • Detection Setup: The setup included liquid scintillators to detect emitted particles, using a small Pu-240 sample to minimize alpha particle emission.
    • Measurement Focus: They measured the energies of neutrons and other fission products, focusing on neutron-induced fission data.

    PYQ:

    [2023] Consider the following statements:

    • Statement-I: India, despite having uranium deposits, depends on coal for most its electricity production.
    • Statement-II: Uranium, enriched to the extent at of least 60%, is required for the production of electricity.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I

    (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-1

    (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect

    (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct