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Subject: Science and Technology

  • India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbitter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space mission, both in terms of technology and logistics? Explain critically.

  • Give an account of the growth and development of nuclear science and technology in India. What is the advantage of fast breeder reactor programme in India?

  • Stem cell therapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical conditions including Leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns. Describe briefly what stem cell therapy is and what advantages it has over other treatments?

  • How does the Juno Mission of NASA help to understand the origin and evolution of the Earth?

  • Why is there so much activity in the field of biotechnology in our country? How has this activity benefitted the field of biopharma?

    Biotechnology involves using living organisms and biological systems to develop useful products and processes. India is now among the world’s top 12 biotechnology hubs.

    Activity in the field of Biotechnology in India

    Robust Government Policy: Initiatives like the National Biotechnology Development Strategy 2021-2025 have provided a roadmap for a $150 billion bio-economy by 2025.

    Institutional Framework: The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and BIRAC provide critical seed funding and mentorship to over 5,000 startups.

    Cost-Effective R&D: India offers a significant cost advantage (nearly 33% lower) in R&D and manufacturing compared to developed nations, attracting Global Capability Centers (GCCs).

    Vast Biodiversity and Genetic Pool: India’s diverse climatic zones and ethnic genetic diversity provide a massive “natural laboratory” for genomic research and agricultural biotech.

    Human Capital: A steady influx of STEM graduates (over 2 million annually) provides the technical workforce required for high-end lab work and clinical trials.

    Infrastructure Growth: The establishment of specialized Biotech Parks offers “plug-and-play” facilities for rapid scaling. Eg- Genome Valley in Hyderabad.

    FDI Liberalization: 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is permitted under the automatic route for greenfield projects, boosting capital infusion.

    Digital Integration: The use of AI and Big Data in bioinformatics, supported by the National Supercomputing Mission has accelerated drug discovery and protein folding research.

    Pandemic Legacy: The successful indigenous development of vaccines (e.g., Covaxin) proved India’s “Proof of Concept” to the world, triggering massive reinvestment in the sector.

    Activity benefitting the field of Biopharma

    Global Vaccine Leadership: India now supplies approximately 60% of the world’s vaccines, earning the title Pharmacy of the World.

    Increase Economical Value: The Indian bioeconomy reached an estimated $130-$165.7 billion in 2024, with projections to reach $300 billion by 2030.

    Shift to Biosimilars: Biotechnology has enabled India to move beyond simple generics to complex Biosimilars. India has the highest number of biosimilars approved globally.

    Precision Medicine: Allowed biopharma companies to develop targeted therapies for cancer and rare genetic disorders tailored to the Indian populations

    Clinical Trial Hub: Improved regulatory frameworks such as New Drugs and Clinical Trial Rules, 2019 and biotech expertise have made India a preferred destination for multi-centric global clinical trials.

    Reduced Import Dependency: Local production of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) and Key Starting Materials (KSMs) through fermentation technology is reducing reliance on imports.

    Innovation in Biologics: Companies like Zydus Cadila and Dr. Reddy’s are now shifting from “imitative” to “innovative” R&D, focusing on novel biologics for autoimmune diseases.

    Diagnostics Revolution: The biotech boom led to the rapid development of low-cost, molecular diagnostic kits such as RT-PCR, CRISPR-based ‘Feluda’ tests, improving healthcare penetration.

    Major challenges

    High Capital Intensity: Developing a single biosimilar costs $100-250 million, deterring smaller Indian firms from competing.

    Complex Manufacturing Requirements: Biologics require ultra-pure environments, even a 1°C temperature shift can spoil entire production batches.

    Innovation Deficit: India still invests only 7-8% of revenue in R&D compared to 20%+ by global innovators.

    Skill Gap in Advanced Tech: Shortage of professionals trained in bioinformatics, transcriptomics, and computational biology slows down innovation.

    Global Intellectual Property (IP) Conflicts: Navigating the “patent thickets” of global biopharma giants remains a major legal challenge for biosimilars.

    Infrastructure Deficit in NAMs: Lack of standardized, industry-ready laboratories for non-animal methodologies across the country.

    Supply Chain Fragility: India remains dependent on imported raw materials like specialized cell culture media for biotech production.

    Way forward

    Strengthening Regulatory Cadre: Creating a dedicated “Scientific Review Cadre” within CDSCO to match global approval timelines.

    Expanding Clinical Trial Capacity: Establishing a national network of 1,000 accredited clinical trial sites to accelerate drug development.

    Investing in Biofoundries under BioE3 Policy to provide common infrastructure for startups to test and scale.

    Academic-Industry Collaboration: Upgrading seven NIPERs into “Centers of Excellence” for translational research and high-end skilling.

    Strategic Use of Free Trade Agreements: Leveraging FTAs with the EU and UK to harmonize quality standards and boost exports.

    By bridging the gap between laboratory research and commercial biopharma, India is moving toward Atmanirbhar Bharat in healthcare.

  • Discuss the work of ‘Bose-Einstein Statistics’ done by Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose and show how it revolutionized the field of Physics.

    In 1924, S.N Bose wrote a groundbreaking paper on quantum theory that solved key problems in radiation physics. Recognizing its importance, Albert Einstein translated and published it, laying the foundation of Bose-Einstein statistics and modern quantum mechanics.

    The Work of ‘Bose-Einstein Statistics’

    Indistinguishability of Particles: Bose proposed that subatomic particles like photons are completely identical and indistinguishable, meaning swapping their positions does not create a new physical state.

    New Counting Method: Instead of using classical probability, Bose developed a unique statistical method to calculate how identical particles distribute themselves across different energy levels.

    Deriving Planck’s Law: Bose successfully derived Max Planck’s blackbody radiation formula purely from quantum concepts, completely removing the traditional reliance on classical physics electromagnetism laws.

    Integer Spin Behavior: The statistics apply to particles with whole-number spins, called Bosons, which naturally tend to cluster together in the exact same quantum state.

    Extension to Matter: Albert Einstein expanded Bose’s mathematical framework from light photons to massive gas atoms, predicting a new state of matter at ultra-low temperatures.

    How It Revolutionized the Field of Physics

    The Concept of Bosons: Particles with integer spins (Eg- photons, gluons, and the Higgs Boson) were named bosons in his honor. Unlike fermions, any number of bosons can occupy the same quantum state.

    Macroscopic Quantum Phenomena: The statistics provided the mathematical basis to understand low-temperature quantum phenomena like superfluidity and superconductivity.

    Experimental Proof: The theoretical prediction of BECs was experimentally proven in 1995 by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman, which created an entirely new field of ultra-cold atomic physics.

    Technological Applications: It serves as the underlying principle behind lasers (which rely on coherent, indistinguishable photons), semiconductors, and modern quantum computing

    S.N Bose bridged the gap between early quantum theory and modern quantum mechanics by redefining particle identity through revolutionary statistical methods, influencing pioneers like Erwin Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg.

  • How can biotechnology improve the living standards of farmers?

    Karoly Ereky coined the term “Biotechnology” in 1919 to describe the fusion of biological and technological processes aimed at enhancing life on Earth. For agriculture, biotechnology has emerged as a significant boon, elevating crop quality and yield through innovative approaches.

    Role of Biotechnology in Improving Living Standards of Farmers

    Provides disease-free planting material through tissue culture. Eg- Tissue culture banana (G-9 cultivar) increases yields by 30-40%.

    Enhances crop yields through high-yielding and hybrid varieties. Eg- “Swarna Sub-1” flood-tolerant rice and “DRR Dhan 42” drought-tolerant rice.

    Reduces pesticide cost through pest-resistant GM crops. Eg- Bt cotton reduced pesticide use by 40-60%.

    Lowers fertilizer expenses using biofertilisers. Eg- Rhizobium and Azotobacter cuts nitrogen fertilizer requirement in pulses/oilseeds.

    Increases resilience to climate shocks with stress-tolerant seeds. Eg- Drought Tolerant High-Yielding Chickpea Variety “SAATVIK (NC 9)”

    Reduces post-harvest losses using improved shelf-life varieties. Eg- Delayed-ripening tomato (Arka Rakshak) reduces spoilage.

    Nutritional security through biofortified crops. Eg- Iron-rich pearl millet (ICMH 1202).

    Kisan-Kavach: An anti-pesticide suit designed to combat the threat of pesticide-induced toxicity in agricultural settings.

    Enables diversification into high-value crops. Eg- Tissue-culture strawberries (“Chandler”) in Himachal Pradesh.

    Boosts dairy income through microbial feed supplements. Eg- Yeast-based probiotics increase milk yield by 8-12%.

    Enhances fishery productivity using improved seed varieties. Eg- Jayanti Rohu shows 17-20% higher growth rates.

    Generates rural employment – Eg- Tissue culture labs and biofertiliser units run through FPOs in Telangana.

    Supports women-led microenterprises – Eg- SHGs in Tamil Nadu producing vermicompost.

    Challenges

    Regulatory Complexity: Approval processes for GMOs and biotech tools are lengthy. Eg- delay in approval of GM Mustard (DMH-11)

    Public skepticism about GMOs. Eg- opposition to Bt Brinjal.

    Environmental and Ethical Concerns: Gene flow to non-target species, biodiversity risks, and ethical considerations around gene editing. Eg- concerns over “playing God”

    Access and Equity: High development costs and IP protections limit access for smallholders.

    Health concerns – Eg- StarLink corn incident (2000) – animal-feed-only GM corn entered the human food chain.

    Limited private sector participation – Eg- Policies such as the Cotton Seed Price Control Order (2015) and mandatory tech transfer provisions have discouraged private R&D

    Illegal Cultivation and biosafety risks – Eg- HT-Bt cotton is illegally cultivated on up to 25% of cotton acreage in India

    Declining Cotton Productivity – Yields have fallen from 566 kg/ha (2013-14) to 436 kg/ha (2023-24), far below China and Brazil’s 1,800-1,900 kg/ha.

    Rising Import Dependence – India has shifted from net exporter to net importer, with cotton imports reaching $0.4 billion in 2024-25.

    Undermining seed sovereignty due to intellectual property rights. Eg – Monsanto-Mahyco Bt cotton disputes

    Way Forward

    Science-Based Regulation- Ensure transparent field trials, publicly accessible data and independent monitoring,

    Promote public-private partnerships in biotech research and support region-specific GM crops

    Implement robust GM labeling and enforce strict action against illegal cultivation and counterfeit seeds.

    Prioritise biofortified GM crops such as Golden Rice, iron-rich pulses, and zinc-rich wheat to combat micronutrient deficiencies

    Effective implementation of BioE3 mission can help realise Vajpayee’s vision of Biotech for Bharat – “What IT is for India, BT is for Bharat”

  • What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme?

    A space station is a habitable, long-term orbital laboratory for scientific research. India’s plan to build the Bharatiya Antariksha Station (BAS) represents a pivotal shift from short-duration missions to a sustained human presence in space.

    India’s Plan for Bharatiya Antariksha Station (BAS)

    The BAS is envisioned as a modular space station positioned in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) at an altitude of approximately 400-450 km.

    Modular Architecture: The station will consist of five modules launched in phases. The station’s total weight is estimated at 52 tonnes upon completion.

    Timeline:

    2028: Target for the launch of the first module, BAS-01 (Base Module).

    2028-2035: Sequential launch and docking of the remaining four modules.

    2035: Targeted year for the station to become fully operational.

    Technical Specifications: It is designed to accommodate a nominal crew of 3 to 4 astronauts for durations of 3 to 6 months, with a maximum capacity of 6 during crew handovers.

    The plan involves mastering Rendezvous and Docking (SpaDeX), advanced Environmental Control and Life Support Systems (ECLSS), and robotic arm operations.

    Benefits to India’s Space Programme

    Scientific

    Microgravity Research Platform: It provides a permanent laboratory for long-term experiments in biotechnology, materials science, and pharmaceuticals that cannot be replicated on Earth.

    Advanced Life Support Systems (ECLSS): Mastering the recycling of air and water is essential for sustaining life; BAS serves as the ultimate testbed for these “closed-loop” technologies.

    Technological

    Rendezvous and Docking Maturity: Successful operation requires perfecting the SpaDeX (Space Docking Experiment) technology, a critical skill for any future lunar or interplanetary assembly.

    Gateway to the Moon (2040): The station acts as a training ground for the Bharatiya Antariksha Yatri, preparing them for the planned 2040 Lunar Landing.

    In-Orbit Refueling and Servicing: BAS will pioneer technologies to refuel satellites in orbit, potentially extending the life of multi-billion dollar assets and reducing space debris.

    International

    Strategic Autonomy: Having an independent station ensures India is not dependent on foreign platforms for sensitive research or strategic orbital maneuvers.

    Geopolitical Leadership: It cements India’s role as a leader in the Global South, offering a potential platform for collaborative missions with nations lacking independent space access.

    Economic

    8. Income for ISRO by leasing out experiments, taking astronauts of other countries.

    9. Boosting space industry in India.

    10. Promotion of space tourism in India.

    The Bharatiya Antariksha Station is the cornerstone of India’s “Space Vision 2047.”

  • How is the government of India protecting traditional knowledge of medicine from patenting by pharmaceutical companies?

    India’s traditional medicinal knowledge includes thousands of formulations and approximately 45,000 plant species, but faces biopiracy threats from multinational companies patenting indigenous resources without consent or compensation.

    Government Initiatives to Protect Traditional Knowledge

    Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL):

    Translates ancient medicinal texts from Sanskrit, Urdu, Tamil, Persian and other languages into English, French, German, Spanish, and Japanese for global patent examiners.

    Contains over 4.48 lakh formulations, including Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, Sowa Rigpa, and Yoga knowledge systems.

    CSIR-TKDL actively files pre-grant oppositions and third-party observations; 283 patent applications were refused, amended, or withdrawn using TKDL evidence.

    The Biological Diversity Act, 2002: Mandates that any foreign individual or commercial entity seeking to use India’s biological resources or traditional knowledge must obtain prior approval from NBA.

    National Biodiversity Authority: NBA is a statutory body implementing the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 to protect India’s biological resources and traditional knowledge.

    People’s Biodiversity Register (PBR): Administered by the NBA, PBR serves as a formal tool for recording and maintaining comprehensive localized data on biological resources and their medicinal uses.

    Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) agreements:

    Companies using Indian bio-resources must share royalties or benefits with the National Biodiversity Authority.

    These funds support local Biodiversity Management Committees and tribal communities.

    The Patents Act, 1970:

    States that an invention which is traditional knowledge, or an aggregation or duplication of known properties of traditionally known components, is not patentable.

    Mandates disclosure of the source and geographical origin of biological materials used in patents, with details shared with the NBA.

    Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act, 2001: Protects the rights of local communities and farmers over their traditional crop and medicinal plant varieties.

    By safeguarding indigenous medical heritage through the NBA and TKDL, India directly advances SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) and SDG 15 (Life on Land) while protecting local community rights.

  • How was India benefited from the contributions of Sir M.Visvesvaraya and Dr. M. S. Swaminathan in the fields of water engineering and agricultural science respectively?

    India’s foodgrains production has surged from 50.8 million tons in 1950-51 to over 357 million tons in 2025. Sir Visvesvaraya and Dr. Swaminathan played a prominent role in this transformation.

    Contribution of Sir M. Visvesvaraya in Water Engineering

    Modernisation of Irrigation Systems – Eg- Invented the automatic weir water floodgates, first installed at KRS Dam

    Major Dams and Multipurpose Projects – Designed the Krishna Raja Sagara (KRS) Dam, which irrigated 1.2 lakh+ hectares in Mandya region

    Developed water supply and drainage systems for Hyderabad, Pune, Nagpur, Belagavi

    Promotion of Scientific Water Management – Pioneered ideas like integrated river valley development

    Advocated planned economic development through irrigation, power generation, and industrialisation. Eg- Mysore Iron & Steel Works.

    International Projects– worked on water supply and drainage systems in the British Colony of Aden (now Yemen)

    His Mysore State Flood Report in 1909 provided crucial insights on flood management

    Contributions of Dr. M. S. Swaminathan in Agricultural Science

    Chaired the National Commission on Farmers and recommended policies like the MSP formula (C2 + 50%).

    Father of the Green Revolution – Introduced high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice. Eg- “Swarna” rice variety

    Achieving Food Self-Sufficiency – foodgrain production rose from ~72 million tonnes (1965) to over 130 million tonnes (1980s), ending “ship-to-mouth” dependence.

    Promotion of Sustainable and Climate-Resilient Agriculture – Advocated genetic conservation, bio-fortification, and evergreen revolution principles

    He played an instrumental role in developing the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act of 2001.

    Institutional Building

    ICAR modernisation – Director-General from 1972 to 1979.

    Setting up MS Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF)

    Promoting biotechnology. Eg- research on cryogenetics in potato crops.

    Together, they shaped India’s progress in water management, agriculture, and national development.

    Agriculture Technology