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Subject: Science and Technology

  • What do you understand by nanotechnology and how is it helping in health sector?

    Nanotechnology involves designing and manipulating materials, devices, and systems at the nanoscale, typically 100 nanometres or smaller-by controlling atoms and molecules.

    Key Characteristics of Nanotechnology

    High Surface-Area-to-Volume Ratio: Material surface area increases drastically at the nanoscale, exponentially accelerating its chemical reactivity.

    Quantum Confinement Effects: Restricting electrons at atomic levels alters a material’s optical, electrical, and magnetic behaviors.

    Altered Physical Strength: Nanomaterials exhibit significantly enhanced structural strength, mechanical durability, and flexibility compared to bulk forms.

    Enhanced Biological Penetration: Extremely small particle sizes allow nanomaterials to easily cross dense biological cellular barriers.

    Tunable Material Properties: Changing particle sizes allows scientists to precisely alter colors, conductivity, and melting points.

    Nanotechnology in the Health Sector

    Targeted Drug Delivery: Nanocarriers, such as liposomes and nanoparticles, can be engineered to deliver drugs directly to diseased cells. Eg- Abraxane– treat breast and pancreatic cancer.

    Nanosensors for Early Diagnosis: Detect biomarkers such as proteins or DNA sequences at extremely low concentrations, enabling early diagnosis of diseases like cancer and Alzheimer’s.

    Advanced Imaging: Nanoparticles like Quantum Dots and iron oxide nanoparticles provide superior contrast for MRI and CT scans.

    Regenerative medicine: Nanoscaffolds mimic the body’s natural cellular framework, promoting cell growth and tissue regeneration to repair damaged organs and tissues.

    Smart Nanobots for Surgery: Though still in evolving stages, Emerging nanobots are being developed for minimally invasive microsurgeries, such as removing arterial blockages.

    Improved Bioavailability of Drugs: Nano-formulations enhance the solubility and absorption of poorly water-soluble drugs by increasing their surface-area-to-volume ratio.

    Antibacterial and Wound Healing: Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are used in wound dressings and surgical coatings to prevent infections, including drug-resistant bacteria.

    Gene therapy: Nanoparticles safely deliver DNA or RNA into cells for treating genetic disorders. Eg- Pfizer-BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine and Moderna COVID-19 vaccine use lipid nanoparticles.

    Point-of-care diagnostics: Nanotechnology enables “lab-on-a-chip” devices for rapid portable testing, improving healthcare access in rural areas.

    For a country like India, leveraging nanotechnology can be the key to achieving the goal of “Affordable and Accessible Healthcare for All” under the National Health Policy.

  • How is science interwoven deeply with our lives? What are the striking changes in agriculture triggered off by the science-based technologies?

    India’s foodgrains production has surged from 50.8 million tons in 1950-51 to over 357 million tons in 2025. Science has played an important role in this transformation.

    Science Interwoven Deeply With Our Lives

    Healthcare – Vaccines, antibiotics, diagnostics (RT-PCR) have improved life expectancy from 62 in 1990 to 73 in 2025.

    Communication & Connectivity – Internet, smartphones, satellites have transformed education, governance, and commerce. Eg- PM e-Vidya

    Transport – Electric vehicles, GPS, high-speed transport have increased mobility. Eg- Vande Bharat

    Energy Infrastructure – Renewables, smart grids etc shape modern living standards.

    Daily Convenience – Refrigeration, water purification, digital payments, and sensor-based devices ease everyday life.

    Disaster Management – Weather forecasting, early-warning systems save lives during cyclones and floods.

    e-Governance has improved ease of access for citizens. Eg- m-Passport Seva

    Striking Changes in Agriculture Triggered by Science-Based Technologies

    Green Revolution HYVs increased wheat yields from 12 MT (1960s) to 55 MT (1980s).

    Biotechnology & Genetics – Bt cotton reduced pesticide use by 40-60%.

    Precision Farming & Sensors – Use of drones, IoT soil sensors, GIS mapping improves fertilizer and water efficiency.

    Micro-Irrigation – Drip & sprinkler systems increase water-use efficiency by 40-70%.

    Mechanization – Harvesters, seed drills, transplanters reduce labour cost and increase timeliness of operations.

    Climate-Smart Agriculture – Drought-/flood-tolerant seeds reduce climate risk. Eg- Swarna Sub-1 rice

    Post-Harvest & Storage Technologies – Cold chains, ripening chambers, packhouses reduce losses and enable access to distant markets.

    Digital Agriculture – e-NAM, agritech platforms, Kisan drones improve market access and real-time advisory.

    Soil & Water Management Tools – Soil health cards, nano-urea, and microbial biofertilisers improve soil fertility.

    When science meets scale, when innovation becomes inclusive, when technology drives transformation, the foundation for great achievements is laid – PM Modi

  • COVID-19 pandemic has caused unprecedented devastation worldwide. However, technological advancements are being availed readily to win over the crisis. Give an account of how technology was sought to aid management of the pandemic.

    The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, emerged as an unprecedented global health emergency. Beyond being a mere medical crisis, it disrupted human mobility, governance, economies, and social structures on a scale not witnessed since the 1918 Influenza pandemic.

    Unprecedented Devastation Worldwide

    Estimated 22.1 million excess deaths (WHO).

    Life Expectancy Reversal: reduced global life expectancy by 1.8 years between 2019 and 2021.

    Healthcare Collapse: Routine medical services were severely crippled.

    Lockdowns triggered the worst global economic downturn since the Great Depression.

    Educational Disruption for over 1.6 billion learners globally and widening the digital divide.

    Role of Technology in Pandemic Management

    Digital Surveillance and Contact Tracing: Bluetooth- and GPS-based apps enabled real-time tracking and containment of infection clusters. Eg- Aarogya Setu.

    Vaccine Development and Genomic Sequencing: Eg- Moderna Vaccine developed within 11 months.

    Digital Vaccination Infrastructure: Cloud-based platforms streamlined vaccine registration, scheduling, and certification. Eg- India’s CoWIN managed over 2.2 billion vaccine doses.

    AI in Diagnostics and Triage: Machine learning tools enabled rapid COVID-19 detection through CT scans and X-rays. Eg- Baidu deployed AI thermal screening systems.

    Telemedicine and Virtual Healthcare: Telehealth reduced hospital burden through remote consultations and home-based care. Eg- India’s eSanjeevani.

    Robotics and Autonomous Systems: Robots and drones minimized frontline exposure in infectious zones. Eg- ICMR’s i-DRONE project.

    3D Printing and Additive Manufacturing: Eg- 3D-printed face shields and ventilator valves.

    Blockchain in Supply Chains: Eg- Blockchain-monitored cold-chain logistics for mRNA vaccines.

    Remote Collaboration Platforms: Cloud communication tools sustained governance, education, and economic activity. Eg- Zoom, Microsoft Teams, and Webex.

    Limitations of Technology in the Management of the Pandemic

    Deepening Digital Divide: Lack of smartphone and internet access excluded impoverished populations from receiving digital welfare.

    Widespread Digital Misinformation: Eg: viral forward messages promoting unverified chemical consumption as a coronavirus cure.

    Data Privacy Breaches: Rapid deployment of tracing applications raised serious concerns regarding unauthorized surveillance and data leakages.

    Supply Chain Bottlenecks: Eg: Global shortages of semiconductor chips crippling production of critical high-end hospital ventilators.

    Fragmented Trans-National Data Silos: Eg: Delays in sharing early clinical raw data hindering global strain mutation tracking.

    Way Forward

    Use of robotics & telemedicine on a broader scale to achieve last mile delivery.

    Following ONE HEALTH approach to develop preventive cure.

    Increase R&D spending in the health sector to strengthen diagnosis & research with the help of the private sector.

    The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted that while biological threats can bring human civilization to a sudden halt, modern technology serves as a vital tool for resilience.

  • How is S-400 air defence system technically superior to any other system presently available in the world?

    The S-400 Triumf, developed by Russia’s Almaz-Antey, is widely regarded as one of the most potent long-range Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) systems.

    Technical Superiority of the S-400 System

    Multi-Missile Capability: Unlike other systems that fire a single type of missile, the S-400 can launch four different types of missiles.

    Unmatched Range and Reach: Its longest-range missile (40N6E) can engage targets at 400 km, nearly double the effective range of the Patriot PAC-3 (approx. 160-180 km).

    360-Degree Coverage: The S-400 uses cold-vertical launch technology. This provides 360-degree coverage, whereas the Patriot is a “tilted” launcher that must be rotated to face the threat.

    Target Engagement Capacity: A single S-400 battalion can track up to 300 targets and engage 36 targets simultaneously with 72 missiles.

    High Mobility and Deployability: The entire system is truck-mounted and can be deployed or packed up in 5 to 10 minutes.

    Hypersonic Target Engagement: The system is designed to intercept targets traveling at speeds up to Mach 14, making it capable of countering most modern tactical ballistic missiles.

    Anti-Electronic Warfare Protection: The S-400 are equipped with advanced frequency-hopping and electronic counter-countermeasures, making them highly resistant to jamming.

    Interoperability: It can be integrated into existing air defense networks, acting as a “Command and Control” hub for a country’s entire airspace.

    Altitude Versatility: It can engage targets as low as 10 meters (cruising drones) and as high as 30 km (near-space aircraft/ballistic missiles)

    While the US Patriot system is highly battle-proven and excels in point-defense, the S-400 offers an “Area Denial” (A2/AD) capability that is unmatched in terms of range, target variety, and rapid response.

  • What are the research and developmental achievements in applied biotechnology/? How will these achievements help to uplift the poorer sections of society?

    Applied biotechnology focuses on the practical application of these biological insights to solve real-world problems in sectors like agriculture, healthcare, environment, and industry.

    R&D Achievements in Applied Biotechnology

    Genomics: Genome India Project sequenced 10,000 Indian genomes. It provides a baseline for understanding genetic diseases unique to the Indian population.

    Climate-Resilient Crops: Eg- Sahbhagi Dhan for drought and Swarna-Sub1 for flood- prone areas has secured yields in disaster-prone regions.

    Human health

    Indigenous Vaccine Platforms: Eg- Development of the world’s first DNA-based COVID-19 vaccine (ZyCoV-D) and the indigenously developed HPV vaccine (Cervavac) for cervical cancer.

    Bio-fortification: R&D has led to the creation of nutrient-rich crop varieties, such as Sakti-1 maize (high lysine and tryptophan) and CR Dhan 310 (high protein rice).

    Bio-remediation and Waste-to-Wealth: Success in developing “Microbial Consortia” for cleaning oil spills (OilZapper) and converting agricultural waste into ethanol (2G Biofuels).

    Restorative Health

    Regenerative Research: Eg- LV Prasad Eye Institute (LVPEI) in Hyderabad has pioneered significant advancements in using limbal stem cells to restore vision.

    Synthetic Biology: Research into metabolic engineering has allowed for the microbial production of high-value compounds like Artemisinin (anti-malarial drug), reducing dependence on plant extraction.

    Molecular Diagnostics: The creation of low-cost, paper-based diagnostic strips (like the FELUDA test) for various infectious diseases has decentralized high-end testing.

    Uplifting Poorer Sections of Society

    Food and Nutritional Security: Bio-fortified crops directly combat “Hidden Hunger” among the rural poor by providing essential vitamins and minerals through their daily staple diet.

    Increased Farm Income: Biotech seeds like Bt Cotton and bio-stimulants reduce the cost of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, increasing the net profit margin for farmers.

    Affordable Healthcare: Local manufacturing of biologicals and biosimilars through biotech processes makes life-saving drugs like insulin and monoclonal antibodies affordable.

    Animal Husbandry and Dairy: Achievements in In-vitro Fertilization (IVF) for cattle and sex-sorted semen technology have helped landless laborers increase milk yield and improve livestock quality.

    Clean Environment and Sanitation: Biotech-based Bio-toilets utilize anaerobic bacteria to treat human waste in areas without sewage systems, improving hygiene and dignity for urban slum dwellers.

    Employment Generation: The growth of the Bio-Economy (targeted at $300 billion by 2030) creates a range of jobs from high-end research to low-skilled manufacturing.

    Energy Security: The production of bio-gas and ethanol from farm residue provides a secondary source of income for farmers while offering cheaper, cleaner fuel for cooking and transport.

    Resilience to Climate Change: For the poor who are most vulnerable to weather shocks, biotech-developed salt-tolerant or heat-resistant seeds provide a safety net against crop failure.

    Applied biotechnology is no longer a luxury science but a fundamental pillar for inclusive growth.

  • The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings?

    The Blue LEDs invention triggered a fundamental shift in lighting technology, comparable to the transition from the candle to the incandescent bulb. Without the Blue LED, the world was stuck with energy-inefficient incandescent bulbs and mercury-laden fluorescent lamps.

    Impact on Everyday Life

    Energy Efficiency: LEDs convert 50% of energy to light, compared to just 4% for incandescent bulbs lasting 100,000 hours. This efficiency slashes global CO2 emissions.

    Electronics & Mobility: Provided the essential backlighting for LCD screens in smartphones and laptops, allowing for thinner designs and significantly longer battery life.

    Cost-saving: Eg- 50000 hours of white LEDs cost $86 compared to $350 in incandescent light.

    Democratization of Light: Enabled low-power, solar-powered LED lamps, providing safe and affordable light to over a billion people in off-grid rural areas.

    New innovations: Eg- New screens of mobiles & TV which are more efficient & sustainable.

    Advancements in Healthcare and Sanitation

    Water Purification: UV-light emitting diodes are used to sterilize drinking water by destroying the DNA of bacteria and viruses.

    Medical Treatment: Blue light is used in phototherapy to treat neonatal jaundice and certain skin conditions.

    Sustainable Agriculture (Vertical Farming)

    Blue light is essential for photosynthesis.

    Indoor Farming: By fine-tuning light “recipes” using Blue and Red LEDs, farmers can grow food indoors in urban environments without pesticides, using 90% less water

    Enhanced Communication and Connectivity

    Optical Storage: The development of the blue laser led to Blu-ray technology, allowing for much higher data storage densities than earlier red-laser CDs or DVDs.

    Li-Fi: Current research is using Blue LEDs for Light Fidelity (Li-Fi), a high-speed wireless communication technology that transmits data through light pulses.

    Government initiatives promoting LEDs

    UJALA ( Unnat Jyoti by affordable LED for all)

    Street Lighting National Program (SLNP) as Prakash Rath

    In 2026, as we strive for Net Zero goals, the Blue LED remains our most effective tool for “decarbonizing” the night.

  • Launched on 25th December, 2021, James Webb Space Telescope has been much in the news since then. What are its unique features which make it superior to its predecessor Space Telescopes? What are the key goals of this mission? What potential benefits does it hold for the human race?

    The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a collaboration between NASA, ESA, and CSA. It is the most powerful orbital observatory ever built.

    Positioned at the Second Lagrange Point (L2), 1.5 million km from Earth, it acts as a “time machine,” allowing humanity to peer back over 13.5 billion years to the dawn of the universe.

    Unique Features vs. Predecessors (Hubble & Spitzer)

    Key Goals of the Mission

    First Light: Observe the first stars and galaxies formed after the Big Bang.

    Galaxy Evolution: Study how galaxies formed and changed over time.

    Star & Planet Formation: Examine the birth of stars and planetary systems through cosmic dust.

    Exoplanets & Life: Analyzes exoplanet atmospheres to detect gases like water vapour, methane, and carbon dioxide that may support life.

    Solar System Studies: Investigate planets, moons, and other solar system bodies.

    Infrared Astronomy: Use infrared technology to observe distant and hidden cosmic objects.

    Benefits for the Human Race

    Solving Cosmic Origins: It helps us understand how the carbon and oxygen in our bodies were first synthesized in the first stars.

    Exoplanet Discovery: identifying Earth-like planets (e.g., in the TRAPPIST-1 system).

    Medical Advancements: The technology used to scan JWST’s mirrors has been adapted for LASIK eye surgery, improving precision for human vision correction.

    Cryogenic Engineering: Breakthroughs in JWST’s cooling systems have benefitted industries requiring ultra-cold storage, such as supercomputing.

    The massive data from JWST has accelerated the development of AI and Machine Learning algorithms used in earthly data analysis.

    Informing Climate Models: By studying the atmospheres of other planets, scientists gain a better perspective on the chemical processes driving Earth’s climate change.

    International Cooperation: It serves as a model for peaceful diplomacy, involving over 14 countries and 300 universities working toward a shared human goal.

    Scientific Literacy: The breathtaking images (like the “Pillars of Creation”) inspire millions of students to pursue careers in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Math).

    Refining Physics: By observing the expansion of the universe, it helps resolve the “Hubble Tension,” leading to a more accurate understanding of dark matter and dark energy.

    Thus, The James Webb Space Telescope represents the pinnacle of human ingenuity.

  • What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to produce COVID-19 vaccines?

    Vaccines are biological preparations that provide immunity against infectious diseases by training the immune system to fight pathogens. India has emerged as a global vaccine hub, supplying over 60% of global vaccine demand through indigenous vaccine development.

    Basic Principle Behind Vaccine Development

    Mimicking natural infection: Vaccines imitate infections to safely activate the body’s immune defenses.

    Antigen as the key component: Vaccines contain antigens that trigger antibody production. These may include:

    Weakened or killed pathogens

    Pathogen fragments or genetic material

    Inactivated bacterial toxins (toxoids)

    Types of vaccine platform:

    Live-attenuated vaccines: Use weakened living pathogens, providing strong immunity but posing risks to immunocompromised individuals. Eg- MMR and Chickenpox vaccines.

    Non-live vaccines: Use killed pathogens or subunits, making them safer but requiring booster doses due to shorter immunity. Eg- DTaP vaccine.

    Addressing viral mutations: Vaccines for rapidly mutating viruses are periodically updated to maintain protection. Eg- Seasonal flu vaccines and COVID-19 boosters.

    How Vaccines Work?

    Immune system activation: Vaccine antigens are recognized as foreign threats, activating white blood cells to multiply and respond.

    Antibody production: White blood cells produce antibodies that specifically identify and neutralize the pathogen.

    Immunological memory: After the antigen is removed, memory cells remain in the body, providing long-term immunity.

    Protection against disease: On future exposure, memory cells rapidly produce antibodies, preventing severe illness or death.

    Approaches Adopted by Indian Vaccine Manufacturers for COVID-19

    Inactivated whole-virion platform (Covaxin): Bharat Biotech and Indian Council of Medical Research developed a vaccine using chemically inactivated SARS-CoV-2 virus to safely trigger immunity.

    Viral vector platform (Covishield): Serum Institute of India(SII) used a harmless chimpanzee adenovirus carrying spike protein genetic code to stimulate immune response.

    Recombinant protein subunit platform (Covovax & Corbevax): SII and Biological E developed vaccines using purified spike proteins with adjuvants to induce antibodies.

    DNA plasmid platform (ZyCoV-D): Zydus Cadila developed the world’s first human DNA vaccine using plasmid DNA delivered through a needle-free injector.

    mRNA platform (GEMCOVAC-19): Gennova Biopharmaceuticals developed an mRNA vaccine using lipid nanoparticles to deliver spike-protein instructions safely into cells.

    India’s diverse COVID-19 vaccine response-from inactivated vaccines to DNA and mRNA platforms-has strengthened its role as the Pharmacy of the World. Expanding indigenous R&D and ensuring timely immunization remain vital for achieving United Nations SDG 3(Good Health and Well-being)

  • Each year a large amount of plant material, cellulose, is deposited on the surface of Planet Earth. What are the natural processes this cellulose undergoes before yielding carbon dioxide, water and other end products?

    Cellulose, the main structural material in plant cell walls, is the Earth’s most abundant organic polymer. When plants die, microorganisms decompose cellulose into carbon dioxide, water, and humus, recycling nutrients back into ecosystems.

    Natural processes undergone by cellulose

    Chemical Degradation:

    Cellulose decomposition is carried out by microbes such as Trichoderma and Clostridium, which secrete cellulase enzymes.

    These enzymes sequentially break cellulose into smaller chains, then cellobiose,and finally glucose for microbial absorption.

    Metabolic Processing: After absorption, microbes metabolize glucose to release energy.

    Oxygen-rich conditions: aerobic microbes convert glucose into carbon dioxide and water.

    Oxygen-poor environments: wetlands, anaerobic microbes and methanogens ferment glucose, producing methane and carbon dioxide.

    Humification:

    Not all plant material fully decomposes; some forms stable humus through reactions with lignin and microbial proteins.

    Humus enriches soil fertility, improves water retention, and acts as an important long-term carbon sink.

    The natural processing of deposited cellulose represents the core operational machinery of the Global Carbon Cycle. Without this systematic microbial and physical breakdown, plant litter would accumulate indefinitely, locking away vital nutrients and choking planetary ecosystems.

  • What is the main task of India’s third moon mission which could not be achieved in its earlier mission? List the countries that have achieved this task. Introduce the subsystems in the spacecraft launched and explain the role of the Virtual Launch Control Centre at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre which contributed to the successful launch from Srihari Kota.

    Chandrayaan-3 mission successfully landed near the lunar South Pole in August 2023. India not only redeemed the partial failure of its predecessor but also became the first nation to reach the Moon’s most scientifically coveted region.

    Main Task of Chandrayaan-3

    To demonstrate Safe and Soft Landing on the Lunar Surface. Chandrayaan-2 experienced a setback with the lander’s failure to achieve a soft landing.

    To demonstrate Rover roving on the moon and

    To conduct in-situ scientific experiments.

    Countries that have achieved moon mission

    The Soviet Union (USSR)

    The United States of America (USA)

    The People’s Republic of China

    The Republic of India

    Japan (Achieved post-Chandrayaan-3 in early 2024 via its SLIM mission)

    Subsystems of the Spacecraft

    Propulsion Module (PM): Carries the Lander Module from launch vehicle injection until it reaches the final 100 km circular polar lunar orbit, where separation occurs.

    Lander Module (LM): To demonstrate soft-landing capabilities at a specific lunar site and deploy the Rover.

    Scientific Payloads:

    ChaSTE: Measures thermal conductivity and surface temperature.

    ILSA: Monitors seismic activity around the landing site.

    RAMBHA Uses Langmuir Probe (LP) to measure near-surface plasma density and temporal variations.

    Laser Retroreflector Array: A passive instrument used for lunar laser ranging studies.

    Rover: Mobility across the lunar surface to conduct chemical analysis of the soil and rocks.

    Scientific Payloads:

    APXS (Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer): Derives the elemental composition of the lunar surface.

    LIBS (Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscope): Identifies the chemical elements present in the vicinity of the landing site.

    Role of the ‘Virtual Launch Control Centre’ (VLCC)

    Remote System Checkouts: Allowed ISRO scientists to perform comprehensive remote testing of the LVM3-M4 rocket from Thiruvananthapuram.

    Parallel Monitoring: It acted as a digital twin to the Main Control Centre (MCC) at Sriharikota, providing an additional layer of real-time telemetry analysis and redundancy.

    Decentralized Coordination: Strategic hub that allows experts to monitor the health of the launch vehicle without overcrowding the primary launch site.

    By rectifying previous design limitations, India’s third lunar mission successfully completed its complex soft-landing task, solidifying ISRO’s status in elite global space exploration.


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