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Subject: Science and Technology

  • What is Raychaudhuri Equation?

    The Raychaudhuri Equation in General Relativity, derived by Raychaudhuri is in the spotlight after 2020 Physics Nobel was awarded to Penrose for throwing light on Black Holes.

    Try this MCQ:

    Q.The Raychaudhuri Equation is sometimes seen in news is related to:

    Artificial Intelligence/Cloud Computing/Quantum Mechanics/Space Sciences

    What is Raychaudhuri Equation?

    • Raychaudhuri (1923–2005) was an Indian physicist, known for his research in general relativity and cosmology.
    • In general relativity, the Raychaudhuri equation is a fundamental result describing the motion of nearby bits of matter.
    • It was discovered independently by the Indian physicist Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri and the Soviet physicist Lev Landau.
    • The equation offers a simple and general validation of our intuitive expectation that gravitation should be a universal attractive force between any two bits of mass-energy in general relativity, as it is in Newton’s theory of gravitation.

  • Nobel Prize in Chemistry for CRISPR Technology

    French-American duo Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna have been awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize for the chemistry of CRISPR, which allows scientists to ‘cut-paste’ inside a genetic sequence.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.What is Cas9 protein that is often mentioned in news?

    (a) A molecular scissors used in targeted gene editing

    (b) A biosensor used in the accurate detection of pathogens in patients

    (c) A gene that makes plants pest-resistant

    (d) A herbicidal substance synthesized in genetically modified crops

    The CRISPR technology

    • The CRISPR is an acronym for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats, developed in the year 2012
    • CRISPR has made gene editing very easy and simple, and at the same time extremely efficient.
    • The technology works in a simple way — it locates the specific area in the genetic sequence which has been diagnosed to be the cause of the problem, cuts it out, and replaces it with a new and correct sequence that no longer causes the problem.
    • The technology replicates a natural defence mechanism in some bacteria that use a similar method to protect itself from virus attacks.

    Working of CRISPR

    • An RNA molecule is programmed to locate the particular problematic sequence on the DNA strand.
    • A special protein called Cas9, often described in popular literature as ‘genetic scissor’, is used to break and remove the problematic sequence.
    • A DNA strand, when broken, has a natural tendency to repair itself. But the auto-repair mechanism can lead to the re-growth of a problematic sequence.
    • Scientists intervene during this auto-repair process by supplying the desired sequence of genetic codes, which replaces the original sequence.
    • It is like cutting a portion of a long zipper somewhere in between and replacing that portion with a fresh segment.
    • Because the entire process is programmable, it has a remarkable efficiency and has already brought almost miraculous results.

    Uses of CRISPR

    • There are a whole lot of diseases and disorders, including some forms of cancer, that are caused by an undesired genetic mutation.
    • These can all be fixed with this technology. There are vast applications elsewhere as well. Genetic sequences of disease-causing organisms can be altered to make them ineffective.
    • Genes of plants can be edited to make them withstand pests, or improve their tolerance to drought or temperature.

    Ethical concerns

    • In November 2018, a Chinese researcher in Shenzen created an international sensation with his claim that he had altered the genes of a human embryo that eventually resulted in the birth of twin baby girls.
    • This was the first documented case of a ‘designer babies’ being produced using the new gene-editing tools like CRISPR.
    • What made matters worse was that the gene-editing was probably done without any regulatory permission or oversight.

  • Tackling the challenge of Big Tech

    The article discusses the threat posed by the spread of misinformation on the internet and suggests the steps to tackle it.

    Warning for India

    • The U.S.’s experience with the Internet should serve as a stark warning to India.
    • Most Americans now get their news from dubious Internet sources.
    • This resulted in hardening of political stances and the acute polarisation of the average American’s viewpoint.
    • For India, the danger is that like the U.S., such extreme polarisation can happen in a few short years.
    • There are anywhere between 500 million and 700 million people are now newly online, almost all from towns and rural areas.

    Use of targeted algorithm

    • Social networks such as Facebook, WhatsApp, and Twitter have become the source of news for the people, but these have no journalistic norms.
    • The spread of the misinformation or news has been greatly enhanced by the highly targeted algorithms that these companies use.
    • They are likely to bombard users with information that serves to reinforce what the algorithm thinks the searcher needs to know.
    • As they familiarise themselves with the Internet, newly online Indians are bound to fall prey to algorithms that social network firms use.

    Steps to control the misinformation on the internet

    • 1) Tech firms are already under fire from all quarters,  nonetheless, we need to act.
    • They are struggling to meet calls to contain the online spread of misinformation and hate speech.
    • 2) Unlike the U.S., India might need to chart its own path by regulating these firm before they proliferate.
    • In the U.S., these issues were not sufficiently legislated for and have existed for over a decade.
    • Free speech is inherent in the Constitution of many democracies, including India’s.
    • This means that new Indian legislation needs to preserve free speech while still applying pressure to make sure that Internet content is filtered for accuracy, and sometimes, plain decency.
    • 3) The third issue is corporate responsibility.
    • Facebook, for instance, has started to address this matter by publishing ‘transparency reports’ and setting up an ‘oversight board’.
    • But we cannot ignore the fact that these numbers reflect judgements that are made behind closed doors.
    • What should be regulatory attempts to influence the transparency are instead being converted into secret corporate processes.
    • We have no way of knowing the extent of biases that may be inherent inside each firm.
    • The fact that their main algorithms target advertising and hyper-personalisation of content makes them further suspect as arbiters of balanced news.
    • This means that those who use social media platforms must pull in another direction to maintain access to a range of sources and views.

    Consider the question “What are the factors responsible for the spread of misinformation on social media and suggest the measures to tackle it.”

    Conclusion

    We need strong intervention now. Else, in addition to the media, which has largely been the responsible fourth estate, we may well witness the creation of an unmanageable fifth estate in the form of Big Tech.

  • Physics Nobel for discoveries about Black Holes

    Three scientists won this year’s Nobel Prize in Physics for advancing our understanding of black holes, the all-consuming monsters that lurk in the darkest parts of the universe.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Recently, scientists observed the merger of giant ‘blackholes’ billions of light-years away from the Earth. What is the significance of this observation?

    (a) ‘Higgs boson particles’ were detected.

    (b) ‘Gravitational waves’ were detected.

    (c) Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through ‘wormhole’ was confirmed.

    (d) It enabled the scientists to understand ‘singularity’.

    Who are these laureates?

    • Briton Roger Penrose received half of this year’s prize for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity.
    • German Reinhard Genzel and American Andrea Ghez received the second half of the prize for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy.

    What are black holes?

    • A black hole is formed when stars collapse and can be defined as a space in the universe with an escape velocity so strong that even light cannot escape it.
    • Escape velocity is the speed at which an object must travel to override a planet or an object’s gravitational force.
    • For instance, for a spacecraft to leave the surface of the Earth, it needs to be travelling at a speed of about 40,000 km per hour.
    • Since light cannot get out, black holes are invisible and can only be tracked with the help of a space telescope or other special tools.
    • And the reason light cannot escape is mainly that the gravity inside a black hole is very strong as a result of a lot of matter being squeezed into a small space.

    Their contributions

    • Penrose has been awarded the prize for the discovery that black hole formation is a robust prediction of the general theory of relativity.
    • Genzel and Ghez have been awarded the prize for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy.
    • Penrose’s work has shown that black holes are a direct consequence of Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity.
    • Einstein himself did not believe that black holes exist and presented his theory in November 1915, providing a new way to look at and understand the gravity that shapes the universe “at the largest scale”.
    • Penrose used Einstein’s general theory of relativity in order to prove that the process of formation of black holes is a stable one.
    • Genzel and Ghez, on the other hand, have discovered that an invisible and an extremely heavy object governs the stars’ orbit at the centre of the Milky Way.

  • 2020 Nobel for Hepatitis C Virus discovery

    Americans Harvey J Alter and Charles M Rice, and British scientist Michael Houghton were awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine or Physiology on Monday for the discovery of the hepatitis C virus.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Which one of the following statements is not correct? (CSP 2019)

    (a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV.

    (b) Hepatitis B. unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine.

    (c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses arc several times more than those infected with HIV.

    (d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the symptoms for many years.

    Hepatitis C Virus

    • Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a bloodborne virus and causes liver diseases. It refers to an inflammatory condition of the liver.
    • The novel virus caused several deaths in the 1960s and 1970s — but remained unknown until its discovery in the late 1980s.

    What are other Hepatitis Viruses?

    • Before the discovery of the Hepatitis C virus, two other viruses were known to cause hepatitis in patients.
    • The Hepatitis A virus was known to spread mainly through contaminated food and water and caused a relatively milder form of liver inflammation.
    • Hepatitis B, discovered in the 1960s, was known to transmit mainly through infected blood and caused a more serious form of the disease.
    • Incidentally, the discovery of the Hepatitis B virus too was rewarded with a Nobel Prize in Medicine, given to Baruch Blumberg in 1976. There are vaccines available for this disease now.

    How Hepatitis C came to observation?

    • The discovery and identification of the Hepatitis B virus facilitated the development of a diagnostic test to detect its presence in blood.
    • Thereafter, only blood sanitized from this virus would be given to patients, but it was observed that even this sanitized blood was able to prevent only 20% of the blood-borne hepatitis cases.
    • It was then that the search for the new virus began.

    How is Hepatitis C treated?

    • Presently there is no vaccine available for HCV. However, it can be treated with antiviral medication.
    • Hepatitis A and B are preventable by vaccine.

    Back2Basics:

    https://www.civilsdaily.com/news/in-news-nobel-prize/

  • What is Ketogenic Diet?

    Ketogenic or Keto Diet is popularly followed as a weight loss diet across the world.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Regular intake of fresh fruits and vegetables is recommended in the diet since they are a good source of antioxidants. How do antioxidants help a person maintain health and promote longevity? (CSP 2014)

    (a) They activate the enzymes necessary for vitamin synthesis in the body and help prevent vitamin deficiency.

    (b) They prevent excessive oxidation of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the body and help avoid unnecessary wastage of energy.

    (c) They neutralize the free radicals produced in the body during metabolism.

    (d) They activate certain genes in the cells of the body and help delay the ageing process.

    What is Ketogenic Diet?

    • The Keto Diet is one of the most popular weight-loss diets the world over.
    • It consists of a high-fat, moderate-protein and low-carb diet.
    • It helps in weight loss by achieving ketosis — a metabolic state where the liver burns body fat and provides fuel for the body, as there is limited access to glucose.

    What constitutes a keto diet?

    • A classic keto generally requires that 90 per cent of a person’s calories come from fat, 6 per cent from protein and 4 per cent from carbs.
    • But there are many versions doing the rounds since this one was designed for children suffering from epilepsy to gain control over their seizures.

    How does it impact the body?

    • If we starve the body of carbohydrate, after burning out the glucose, the liver starts breaking down fats for energy.
    • Ketosis is common in all kinds of fasting, but in a keto diet, when one is feeding it by giving a lot of fats from outside without carbs, it can become mildly toxic.
    • It may lead to many nutrient deficiencies such as carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins (especially vitamin A, D, E, & K) and minerals like calcium, phosphorus, sodium.
    • Extreme carbohydrate restriction can lead to hunger, fatigue, low mood, irritability, constipation, headaches, and brain fog, which may last days to weeks

    What impact does it have on our kidneys?

    • Even the moderate increase in protein needs to be carefully monitored, especially in those who are already suffering from chronic kidney disease, as it could lead to kidney failure.
    • One should get a thorough assessment and make sure they have normal kidney function before choosing this diet.
    • This diet could lead to increased stress on the kidneys and result in kidney stones, as they are made to work overtime.

  • What is CBD Oil?

    These days, there are diverse opinions rising regarding the legalization of CBD oil in India after recent controversy rose after the alleged suicide of an actor.

    What is CBD oil?

    • CBD oil is an extract from the cannabis plant.
    • The two main active substances in it are cannabidiol or CBD and delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol, or THC.
    • The high that is caused by the consumption of cannabis is due to THC.
    • CBD, however, does not cause a “high” or any form of intoxication.
    • CBD oil is made by extracting CBD from the cannabis plant, then diluting it with a carrier oil like coconut or hemp seed oil.

    What are the effects of Cannabidiol?

    • Cannabidiol has effects on the brain, preventing the breakdown of a chemical that aggravates the pain and affects mood, and mental function. It can reduce pain and anxiety.
    • It also reduces psychotic symptoms associated with conditions such as schizophrenia as well as epilepsy.

    Is it legal in India?

    • The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985 (NDPS Act) outlaws the recreational use of cannabis.
    • The NDPS Act, however, does not apply to the leaves and seeds of cannabis plants. In case the CBD is extracted from the leaves of the cannabis, then technically it is not illegal.
    • CBD oil manufactured under a licence issued by the Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940 can be legally used.
    • However, the use of cannabis as a medicine is not much prevalent in India.

    Now try this PYQ:

    Q. Widespread resistance of malarial parasite to drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to develop a malarial vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria vaccine?

    A) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium

    B) Man does not develop immunity to malaria during natural infection

    C) Vaccines can be developed only against bacteria

    D) Man is only an intermediate host and not the definitive host

  • Cat Que Virus

    In a study published in the Indian Journal of Medical Research, scientists have noted the presence of antibodies against the Cat Que virus (CQV) in two human serum samples.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Which one of the following statements is not correct?

    (a) Hepatitis B virus is transmitted much like HIV.

    (b) Hepatitis B, unlike Hepatitis C, does not have a vaccine.

    (c) Globally, the number of people infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses is several times more than those infected with HIV.

    (d) Some of those infected with Hepatitis B and C viruses do not show the symptoms for many years.

    What is the Cat Que Virus?

    • For CQV, domestic pigs are considered to be the primary mammalian hosts.
    • Antibodies against the virus indicate that the virus has formed a “natural cycle” in the local area and has the ability to spread in pigs and other animal populations through mosquitoes.
    • CQV belongs to the Simbu serogroup and infects both humans and economically important livestock species.
    • It was first isolated in 2004 from mosquitoes during the surveillance of arbovirus activity in northern Vietnam.
    • In this study, researchers reported a CQV strain (SC0806), which was isolated from mosquito samples collected in China in 2006 and 2008.

    Impact on humans

    • Humans can get infected through mosquitoes as well.
    • In the study, scientists note that because of positivity in human serum samples and the replication capability of CQV in mosquitoes, there is only a “possible disease-causing potential” of CQV in the Indian scenario.

  • [pib] 20 years of Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT)

    In the cold, dry desert of Ladakh, 4500 meters above the mean sea level, for two decades, the 2-m diameter optical-infrared Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT) at the Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO) has been scanning the night sky for 20 years in search of stellar explosions, comets, asteroids, and exo-planets.

    Chandra X-Ray observatory and now, it is Himalayan Chandra Telescope. Do you the key difference? The former is a NASA project while the HCT is the Indian one.

    Himalayan Chandra Telescope

    • The HCT is a 2.01 meters (6.5 feet) diameter optical-infrared telescope named after India-born Nobel laureate Subrahmanyam Chandrasekhar.
    • It contains a modified Ritchey-Chretien system with a primary mirror made of ULE ceramic which is designed to withstand low temperatures it experiences.
    • The telescope was manufactured by Electo-Optical System Technologies Inc. at Tucson, Arizona, USA.
    • It is mounted with 3 science instruments called Himalaya Faint Object Spectrograph (HFOSC), the near-IR imager and the optical CCD imager.
    • It is remotely operated from Hosakote, about 35 km northeast of Bangalore via an INSAT-3B satellite link which allows operation even in sub-zero temperatures in winter.

    Significant feats

    • The telescope has been used in many coordinated international campaigns to monitor stellar explosions, comets, and exo-planets, and has contributed significantly to these studies.
    • Some of the thrust research areas are the study of solar system bodies like; comets, asteroids, the study of star formation processes and young stellar objects, the study of open and globular clusters and variable stars in them.
    • It has helped in analysis of elements in the atmosphere of evolved stars, star formation in external galaxies, Active Galactic Nuclei, stellar explosions like novae, supernovae, gamma-ray bursts and so on.

  • [pib] UVIT: India’s first multi-wavelength astronomical observatory

    The satellite that detected the first extreme-UV rays in the Universe from the cosmic noon celebrated its 5th birthday today.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.“Event Horizon” is related to:

    (a) Telescope

    (b) Black hole

    (c) Solar glares

    (d) None of the above

    Ultra-Violet Imaging Telescope (UVIT)

    • The UVIT is a remarkable 3-in-1 imaging telescope.
    • Weighing all of 230 kg, the UVIT can simultaneously observe in the visible, the near-ultraviolet (NUV) and the far-ultraviolet (FUV).
    • UVIT comprises of two separate telescopes. One of them works in the visible (320-550 nm) and the NUV (200-300 nm).
    • The second works only in the FUV (130-180 nm).

    Its achievement

    • It has carried out 1166 observations of 800 unique celestial sources proposed by scientists both from India and abroad.
    • It has explored stars, star clusters, mapping of the large and small satellite galaxies nearby to our own Milky Way galaxy called the Magellanic Clouds.
    • It is an energetic phenomenon in the Universe such as the ultra-violet counterparts to gamma-ray bursts, supernovae, active galactic nuclei, and so on.
    • Its superior spatial resolution capability has enabled astronomers to probe star formation in galaxies as well as resolve the cores of star clusters (3 times better than the last NASA mission, GALEX).
    • Observations from UVIT has recently led to the discovery of a galaxy located at a distance of about 10 billion light-years from Earth and emitting extreme ultraviolet radiation that can ionize the intergalactic medium.