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Subject: Science and Technology

  • Social Distancing and Flattening the Curve

    The last two days, a number of states in India have enforced measures aimed at reducing public gatherings. This is called “social distancing”.

    How does social distancing work?

    • To stem the speed of the coronavirus spread so that healthcare systems can handle the influx, experts are advising people to avoid mass gatherings.
    • Offices, schools, concerts, conferences, sports events, weddings, and the like have been shut or cancelled around the world, including in a number of Indian states.
    • An advisory by the US Centers for Disease Control recommends social distancing measures such as: reducing the frequency of large gatherings and limiting the number of attendees; limiting inter-school interactions; and considering distance or e-learning in some settings.

    What is the objective of such restrictions?

    • Compared to deadlier diseases such as bird flu, or H5N1, coronavirus is not as fatal —which ironically also makes it more difficult to contain.
    • With milder symptoms, the infected are more likely to be active and still spreading the virus.
    • For example, more than half the cases aboard a cruise ship that has docked in California did not exhibit any symptoms.
    • In a briefing on March 11, WHO officials said, “Action must be taken to prevent transmission at the community level to reduce the epidemic to manageable clusters.”
    • The main question for governments is to reduce the impact of the virus by flattening the trajectory of cases from a sharp bell curve to an elongated speed-bump-like curve.
    • This is being called “flattening the curve”. How does ‘flattening the curve’ help?
    • Limiting community transmission is the best way to flatten the curve.

    What was the curve like in China?

    • The numbers show that the virus spread within Hubei exponentially but plateaued in other provinces.
    • Some say it’s because many of these countries learnt from the 2003 SARS epidemic.
    • Just as Chinese provinces outside of Hubei effectively stemmed the spread in February, three other countries —South Korea, Italy, and Iran — were not able to flatten the curve.

    Flattening The Curve

    • In epidemiology, the idea of slowing a virus’ spread so that fewer people need to seek treatment at any given time is known as “flattening the curve.”
    • It explains why so many countries are implementing “social distancing” guidelines — including a “lockdown” order that affects 1.3 billion people in India, even though COVID-19 outbreaks in various places might not yet seem severe.

    What is the curve?

    • The “curve” researchers are talking about refers to the projected number of people who will contract COVID-19 over a period of time.
    • To be clear, this is not a hard prediction of how many people will definitely be infected, but a theoretical number that’s used to model the virus’ spread. Here’s what one looks like:

    • The curve takes on different shapes, depending on the virus’s infection rate.
    • It could be a steep curve, in which the virus spreads exponentially (that is, case counts keep doubling at a consistent rate), and the total number of cases skyrockets to its peak within a few weeks.
    • Infection curves with a steep rise also have a steep fall; after the virus infects pretty much everyone who can be infected, case numbers begin to drop exponentially, too.
    • The faster the infection curve rises, the quicker the local health care system gets overloaded beyond its capacity to treat people.
    • As we’re seeing in Maharashtra or Ahmedabad, more and more new patients may be forced to go without ICU beds, and more and more hospitals may run out of the basic supplies they need to respond to the outbreak.
    • A flatter curve, on the other hand, assumes the same number of people ultimately get infected, but over a longer period of time.
    • A slower infection rate means a less stressed health care system, fewer hospital visits on any given day and fewer sick people being turned away.

  • What is a Pandemic and various other terms?

    What is the news: The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared the COVID-19 outbreak a pandemic.

    What is a pandemic?

    • Simply put, a pandemic is a measure of the spread of a disease.
    • When a new disease spreads over a vast geographical area covering several countries and continents, and most people do not have immunity against it, the outbreak is termed a pandemic.
    • It implies a higher level of concern than an epidemic, which the US Centers for Disease and Control Prevention (CDC) define as the spread of a disease in a localised area or country.
    • There is no fixed number of cases or deaths that determine when an outbreak becomes a pandemic.
    • The Ebola virus, which killed thousands in West Africa, is an epidemic as it is yet to mark its presence on other continents.
    • Other outbreaks caused by coronaviruses such as MERS (2012) and SARS (2002), which spread to 27 and 26 countries respectively, were not labelled pandemics because they were eventually contained.

    Which outbreaks have been declared pandemics in the past?

    • A major example is the Spanish flu outbreak of 1918, which killed between 20-50 million.
    • Cholera pandemics have been declared multiple times between 1817 and 1975.
    • In 1968, a pandemic was declared for H3N2 that caused about a million deaths.
    • The last pandemic declared by the WHO was in 2009, for H1N1.

    Does the declaration change the approach to the disease?

    • Describing the situation as pandemic does not change WHO’s assessment of the risk posed by the virus. However, the categorization as a pandemic can lead to more government attention.
    • The categorization by WHO indicates the risk of disease for countries to take preventive measures.
    • It will help improve funding by international organisations to combat coronavirus.

    Difference Between Endemic, Epidemic, Outbreak and Pandemic:

    • AN EPIDEMIC is a disease that affects a large number of people within a community, population, or region.
    • A PANDEMIC is an epidemic that’s spread over multiple countries or continents.
    • ENDEMIC is something that belongs to a particular people or country.
    • AN OUTBREAK is a greater-than-anticipated increase in the number of endemic cases. It can also be a single case in a new area. If it’s not quickly controlled, an outbreak can become an epidemic.

    Epidemic vs. Pandemic

    • A simple way to know the difference between an epidemic and a pandemic is to remember the “P” in the pandemic, which means a pandemic has a passport. A pandemic is an epidemic that travels.

    Epidemic vs. Endemic

    • An epidemic is actively spreading; new cases of the disease substantially exceed what is expected.
    • More broadly, it’s used to describe any problem that’s out of control, such as “the opioid epidemic.”
    • An epidemic is often localized to a region, but the number of those infected in that region is significantly higher than normal.
    • For example, when COVID-19 was limited to Wuhan, China, it was an epidemic. The geographical spread turned it into a pandemic.
    • Endemics, on the other hand, are a constant presence in a specific location.
    • Malaria is endemic to parts of Africa. Ice is endemic to Antarctica.

    Endemic vs. Outbreak

    • Going one step farther, an endemic can lead to an outbreak, and an outbreak can happen anywhere.
    • Last summer’s dengue fever outbreak in Hawaii is as an example. Dengue fever is endemic to certain regions of Africa, Central and South America, and the Caribbean. Mosquitoes in these areas carry dengue fever and transmit it from person to person.
    • But in 2019 there was an outbreak of dengue fever in Hawaii, where the disease is not endemic. It’s believed an infected person visited the Big Island and was bitten by mosquitoes there.
    • The insects then transferred the disease to other individuals they bit, which created an outbreak.

    You can see why it’s so easy to confuse these terms. They’re all related to one another and there’s a natural ebb and flow between them as treatments become available and measures for control are put in place — or as flare-ups occur and disease begins to spread.

  • Genome sequencing of Coronavirus

    Scientists across the world are trying to develop a line of treatment and a possible vaccine for COVID-19. However, with the most optimistic timelines we don’t see a line of treatment or vaccine arriving before next year.

    Genome sequencing of Coronavirus

    • A global effort is on to collect and analyse the genetic composition of the new virus, which would be key to developing a cure and a vaccine.
    • Genome sequence is the unique code of genetic material of any organism, and determines the characteristic of any organism.
    • Whole genome sequencing is the process of determining the complete DNA sequence of an organism’s genome at a single time.
    • The gene composition of novel coronavirus, for instance, is different from that of the influenza virus. Every organism has a unique genome sequence.
    • Laboratories in various countries have been isolating and sharing the genome sequences of the virus on an international platform.

    Why are so many genome sequences being isolated?

    • When viruses multiply, or reproduce, there is a copying mechanism that transfers the gene information to the next generation.
    • However, no copying mechanism is perfect. When the virus multiplies, there will be small changes, which are called mutations.
    • These mutations accumulate over time, and after prolonged periods, are responsible for evolution into new organisms.
    • Within a single reproduction, the changes are extremely minor. More than 95 per cent of the gene structure remains the same.

    How it helps scientists?

    • However, the small changes that occur are crucial to understanding the nature and behaviour of the organism.
    • In this case, for example, the small changes could provide scientists with information about the origin, transmission, and impact of the virus on the patient.
    • It could also hold clues to the differing effects the virus could have on patients with different health parameters.

    How many genome sequences are required?

    • India has far fewer positive cases compared to China, South Korea, Iran, Italy, or even the US.
    • Patients who have been infected with the virus in similar conditions are unlikely to show any significant changes in the genome sequences.
    • Patients with existing medical conditions could be other candidates from where genome sequences of this virus could be isolated.
    • This could help scientists to look for clues to possible impact of virus amidst those existing medical conditions.

    Currently, what is the most effective medication?

    • As of now, there is none such. Right now, drugs are being repurposed, meaning old drugs for similar diseases are being checked for their efficacy against COVID-19.
    • These drugs, if they work, will require clinical trials, and then can be made widely available for people.
    • In most cases, symptomatic treatment for fever, body ache, and cough will be sufficient. More severe cases will require oxygen and respiratory support.

  • [pib] ARI-516 Grape Variety

     

    Pune’s Agharkar Research Institute (ARI), an autonomous institute of the DST has developed a hybrid variety of grapes which is resistant to fungal diseases, high yielding and has excellent juice quality.

    ARI-516

    • The hybrid variety ARI-516 has been developed by interbreeding of two species from the same genus — Catawba variety of Vitis labrusca and Beauty seedless variety of Vitis vinifera.
    • It is a result of collaboration between Maharashtra Association for the Cultivation of Science (MACS) and ARCI and can benefit farmers, the processing industry and consumers.
    • This variety of grapes is resistant to fungal diseases, high yielding and has excellent juice quality.
    • The fungal resistance of ARI-516 has been derived from Catawba, which is an American grape variety.

    Commercial benefits

    • It is also suitable for preparation of juice, raisin, jam and red wine and farmers are enthusiastically adopting the variety.
    • It has superior quality fruits and higher yield per unit area.
    • An early ripening hybrid, it matures in 110 – 120 days after pruning.
    • Being moderately resistant to a majority of fungal diseases, its cost of production is lower.

    Back2Basics

    Grape production in India

    • India ranks twelfth in the world in terms of grape production.
    • About 78% of grape production in India is utilized for consumption, 17-20 % for raisin production, 1.5 % for wine and 0.5 % for juice.
    • Maharashtra leads in the production of grapes in India with a share of 81.22 %. A negligible share of grapes is used for juice production.
    • A majority of farmers in Maharashtra cultivate ‘Thompson seedless’ and its clones for table purpose or raisin making.

  • How plants dissipate excess sunlight as heat?

    Photosynthesis is a life-sustaining process by which plants store solar energy as sugar molecules. However if sunlight is in excess it can lead to leaves being dehydrated and damaged.

    What is Photosynthesis?

    • Photosynthesis is the process used by plants, algae and certain bacteria to harness energy from sunlight and turn it into chemical energy.
    • There are two types of photosynthetic processes: oxygenic photosynthesis and anoxygenic photosynthesis.
    • The general principles of anoxygenic and oxygenic photosynthesis are very similar, but oxygenic photosynthesis is the most common and is seen in plants, algae and cyanobacteria.
    • During oxygenic photosynthesis, light energy transfers electrons from water (H2O) to carbon dioxide (CO2), to produce carbohydrates.
    • Ultimately, oxygen is produced along with carbohydrates. Oxygenic photosynthesis is written as follows:

    6CO2 + 12H2O + Light Energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

    Here, six molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) combine with 12 molecules of water (H2O) using light energy. The end result is the formation of a single carbohydrate molecule (C6H12O6, or glucose) along with six molecules each of breathable oxygen and water.

    How do plants dissipate heat?

    • To prevent such damage, plants dissipate extra light as heat.
    • While this was known there has been a debate over the past several decades over how plants actually do so.
    • Now for the first time researchers have directly observed one of the possible mechanisms through which plants dissipate extra sunlight.
    • The new research has been able to determine–by using a highly sensitive type of spectroscopy–that excess energy is transferred from the pigment chlorophyll, which gives leaves their green colour, to other pigments called carotenoids.
    • The carotenoids then release the energy as heat. After the carotenoids accept excess energy, most of it is released as heat, thus preventing damage to the cells.

    Why does plant dissipate light?

    • During photosynthesis, light-harvesting complexes play two seemingly contradictory roles.
    • They absorb energy to drive water-splitting and photosynthesis, but at the same time, when there’s too much energy, they have to also be able to get rid of it.
    • Plants quickly adapt to changes in sunlight intensity. Even in very sunny conditions, only 30 per cent available sunlight is converted into sugar, and the rest is released as heat.
    • The excess energy, if not released, leads to the creation of free radicals that can damage proteins and other important cellular molecules.

    Significance of the research

    • So far, it had been difficult to observe the heat dissipation phenomenon, given that it occurs on a very fast time scale, in femtoseconds or quadrillionths of a second.
    • Using the new technique, researchers could observe that chlorophylls absorb red light and carotenoids absorb blue and green light, thus being able to monitor energy transfer.

  • N95 Mask

    In a new mandate to curb unnecessary demand, the Maharashtra Food and Drug Administration said that chemists cannot sell N95 masks without a doctor’s prescription. The FDA also warned that serious action would be taken against those who are found selling masks at high prices or hoarding them.

    Why such a move?

    • Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) kits and N95 masks are being sold at very high prices in medical shops. The State has received many complaints about the same.
    • It has also been found that many are making bulk purchases and hording PPE kits and N95 masks.
    • Since the COVID-19 outbreak in China, shortage of PPE gear and masks has been reported from across the world.
    • While the Indian government has currently banned exports of N95 masks, the manufacturers are focussed on making other surgical marks to get good returns from exports.

    N95 mask

    • A disposable N95 mask (respirator) is a safety device that covers the nose and mouth and helps protect the wearer from breathing in some hazardous substances.
    • An N95 respirator is designed to achieve a very close facial fit and very efficient filtration of airborne particles.
    • The ‘N95’ designation means that when subjected to careful testing, the respirator blocks at least 95 percent of very small (0.3 micron) test particles.
    • If properly fitted, the filtration capabilities of N95 respirators exceed those of face masks. However, even a properly fitted N95 respirator does not completely eliminate the risk of illness or death.

  • [pib] Quantum coin or ‘qubit’ and Entanglement Theory

    Researchers from Raman Research Institute (RRI), an autonomous institution under the Dept. of Science & Technology, have devised a new test for fairness of quantum coin or ‘qubit’ using entanglement theory. The Qubit is the basic unit of information in a quantum computer.

    Entanglement Theory

    • It is a special type of correlation that exists in the quantum world with no classical counterpart.
    • The researchers from RRI made use of this quantum resource to arrive at a test for fairness of a quantum coin (a qubit).
    • Their strategy, which makes use of entanglement, enables better discrimination between quantum states. Such advantage is valuable in quantum sensors.
    • This work is a significant contribution to the domain of quantum state discrimination, which is an essential aspect of quantum information science.
    • It brings out the crucial role of entanglement in improving our ability to discriminate quantum states.
    • In this work the researchers concretely implemented the theoretical idea on the simulation facility of the IBM quantum computer.

    Quantum coins

    • By repeated trials, one can determine the fairness of a classical coin with a confidence which grows with the number of trials.
    • A quantum coin can be in a superposition of heads and tails.
    • Given a string of qubits representing a series of trials, one can measure them individually and determine the state with a certain confidence.
    • The team has shown that there is an improved strategy which measures the qubits after entangling them, which leads to a greater confidence.

    Significance

    • This is a significant contribution to quantum state discrimination, an essential aspect of quantum information science which is expected to influence quantum sensing.
    • The domain of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing Technology is a growing area of research which is expected to influence Data Processing, which in turn, plays a central role in our lives in this Information Age.
    • For instance, bank transactions, online shopping and so on crucially depend on the efficiency of information transfer.
    • Thus the recent work on quantum state discrimination is expected to be valuable in people’s lives in the current era.

  • [pib] Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)

    Scientists at International Advanced Research for Powder Metallurgy & New Materials (ARCI), Hyderabad have developed Polymer Electrolyte Membrane fuel cells (PEMFC).

    Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells

    • Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells, also known as polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells (PEMFC) are a type of fuel cell being developed mainly for transport applications, as well as for stationary fuel-cell applications and portable fuel-cell applications.
    • Their distinguishing features include lower temperature/pressure ranges (50 to 100 °C) and a special proton-conducting polymer electrolyte membrane.
    • PEMFCs generate electricity and operate on the opposite principle to PEM electrolysis, which consumes electricity.
    • They are a leading candidate to replace the aging alkaline fuel-cell technology, which was used in the Space Shuttle.

    Working

     

    • The PEMFC uses a water-based, acidic polymer membrane as its electrolyte, with platinum-based electrodes.
    • The protons pass through the membrane to the cathode side of the cell while the electrons travel in an external circuit, generating the electrical output of the cell.

    Applications in disaster management

    • Emergency Operation Centres (EOC) backed with 10 kW systems is being planned as a natural disaster management measure.
    • Tamil Nadu is generally affected by five to six cyclones every year, of which two to three are severe and is followed by frequent power cuts.
    • ARCI is now planning to set up a PEMFC system for Tamil Nadu to operate the systems like early warning systems, VHF set, IP phone, BSNL Ethernet and office equipment like scanner, computers, printers, phone, FAX and normal requirements like lighting and fan.

  • NASA’s new Mars rover: Perseverance

    NASA has named its next Mars rover ‘Perseverence’.

    About Perseverance

    • The Perseverance rover weighs less than 2,300 pounds and is managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Lab.
    • The rover’s mission will be to search for signs of past microbial life. It will also collect samples of Martian rocks and dust, according to the release.
    • The rover will also be tasked with studying the red planet’s geology and climate.
    • All of NASA’s previous Mars rovers — including the Sojourner (1997), Spirit and Opportunity (2004) and Curiosity (exploring Mars since 2012) — were named in this way.

  • Media Access Control (MAC) Binding

    After seven months, the use of social media was allowed in Jammu and Kashmir with an order laying down the latest rules for the use of the Internet in the UT.  Among various conditions, the order says Internet connectivity will be made available “with mac-binding”.

    What is Mac-binding?

    • Every device has a Media Access Control (MAC) address, a hardware identification number that is unique to it. While accessing the Internet, every device is assigned an IP address.
    • Mac-binding essentially means binding together the MAC and IP addresses, so that all requests from that IP address are served only by the computer having that particular MAC address.
    • In effect, it means that if the IP address or the MAC address changes, the device can no longer access the Internet.
    • Also, monitoring authorities can trace the specific system from which a particular online activity was carried out.

    Permitted connections

    • The Internet can be accessed on all postpaid devices, and those using Local Area Networks (LAN).
    • While the postpaid SIM card holders shall continue to be provided access to the Internet, these services shall not be made available on prepaid SIM cards unless verified as per the norms applicable for postpaid connections.
    • Apart from this, special access terminals provided by the government will continue to run.
    • It is further directed that the access/communication facilities provided by the government, viz. e-terminals/Internet kiosks apart from special arrangements for tourists, students, traders etc shall continue.

    Only 2G permitted

    • Internet speed in J&K is still restricted to 2G.
    • This means very slow services — pictures will take a long time to be sent or downloaded, videos will be nearly impossible to share, and there will be a long loading time for most websites.
    • It also means that although in theory, the “whitelist system” — where people could only access some websites pre-approved by the government — has been removed, some sites designed for a 4G Internet experience will hardly work.

    Have curbs been lifted?

    • Not exactly. The latest order is to remain in force till March 17 unless modified earlier.
    • The government has been relaxing Internet and phone usage in the UTs in phases.