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Subject: Science and Technology

  • Social Media and the Whatsapp Encryption Challenge

    source

    Encryption is the new challenge facing law enforcement not just in India but around the world. Social media apps such as Whatsapp and Viber have gone ahead and provided end-to-end encryption (E2EE) communications to users.

    When WhatsApp started, the messages that one user sent would be saved in plain text without encryption in the servers which made it possible for a third party to intercept the communication. Ever since 2013, WhatsApp has been encrypting data for its communications now culminating in a strong end-to-end encryption.

    In social media apps, using E2EE encryption means that only the sender and receiver can read the encrypted data because the key to decrypt the data lies only with the end user. No other entities including the service provider has the capacity to decrypt the data even though the data travels through their servers.

    Not all social media platforms use end-2-end encryption. There are some apps like Facebook Messenger where encryption applies only to the data in transit.2 Other apps encrypt the data but store the decryption keys thereby creating the possibility for inspection by law enforcement agencies. Apps like Snapchat encrypt only data in transit but the messages are deleted from the server once the recipient reads it.

    Technicalities of Encryption

    In general, there are two kinds of encryption. In Symmetric Encryption or Secret Key encryption, the same key called the secret key is used to encrypt and decrypt the data or message. It is a very simple method of encryption but the challenge is to preserve the secret key from unintended recipients. If A wants to send a message to B, A encrypts the data using a secret key and shares the key with B to decrypt and read the message.

    In Asymmetric Encryption or Public Key Encryption, different keys are used to encrypt and decrypt the data or message. It is a complex but efficient method of encryption. A public key known to all is used to encrypt the message and a private key, only available with the recipient, is used to decrypt the message. Public key is like finding a telephone number in a directory where each person has his own public key. If A wants to send a message to B, A encrypts the message with B’s public key which is available in the public domain. The recipient of the message, B, uses his/her private key to decrypt the message. In a similar way, B uses A’s public key to encrypt and send a message to A. A decrypts that by using his/her private key. In this case, A and B have different public and private keys.

    WhatsApp uses a more complex version of Asymmetric encryption where the private key varies for each message that is sent.3 All this encryption happens without any need for intervention from the user. WhatsApp uses three public keys named Identity Key, Signed Pre Key and a bunch of One-Time Pre Keys. During the registration of the user, all these keys are generated and sent to the WhatsApp server where it is stored.

    Thus, each WhatsApp user sends these keys to the server where it is stored in a directory.

    Modus Operandi

    If A wants to communicate to B, s/he requests the public keys of B from the server. A then receives three public keys of B. Since there are a bunch of One-Time Pre Keys, a single One-Time Pre Key is allocated to A and, after allocation, gets deleted from the server. In case C wants to communicate with A, s/he will receive a different One-Time Pre Key. Using the 3 public keys of B and A’s Identity Key, a Master Secret Key is generated. Using the Master Secret Key, a Root Key is generated. Using the Master Secret Key and the Root Key, a bunch of Chain Keys are generated. A Message Key is generated based on Chain Key and varies for each message sent. The sender, A, encrypts the message to B using this Message Key. The receiver, B, decrypts the message using his/her private key and public key. The private key is generated at the user end and is not stored even in the server of WhatsApp. In a similar way, B generates a Master Secret Key using A’s three public key and his/her Identity key. Root Key and Chain Keys are derived from the Master Secret Key. Message Key derived out of the Chain Key finally gets used to encrypt the message to A. It is evident that the number of keys generated adds complexity to the encryption thus making it near impossible to break in.

    What it means for India

    Section 84A of the IT Act 2008 calls for encryption to keep the electronic medium secure, and also mentions that the Central Government would prescribe the methods of encryption. The telecom sector is limited to the encryption of 40 bits.4 Section 69 of IT Act 2008 gives power to both Central and State Governments to intercept data taking into account the security of the State. The agency facilitating the transfer of data could also be mandated to decrypt the data.

    WhatsApp, which is one of the Over The Top (OTT) messaging and calling service, uses encryption that is far more sophisticated than that of the telecom sector. There is also no clarity on whether WhatsApp could be requested to decrypt data according to law. Now, after the transition to E2EE, there is no way for WhatsApp to provide decrypted information even when legally bound to do so.

    In a recent move, the Ministry of Home Affairs asked companies like WhatsApp, Facebook, and Google to maintain servers in India. With companies moving to E2EE, locating servers in India would not serve the cause. The 2015 draft encryption policy recommended the use of 256 bit key for encryption and promoting the use of digital signatures thereby envisioning a secure cyberspace. However, certain contradictions in the provisions regulating encryption that mandated users and companies to preserve the plain text and companies providing encryption to enter into an agreement with the Government were harshly criticized and led to the withdrawal of the policy.6

    Therein lies the crux of the issue. On the one hand, a strong policy of regulation would hamper innovation in encryption technology, and, on the other, unregulated encryption would favour miscreants to use the technology for their activities. The need of the moment is a policy that does not come in the way of innovation but at the same time reduces undue opportunities for criminal and terrorist activities.

    Originally published at IDSA

  • Indian Missile Systems and other developments in 2015-16

    The aim of this compilation is to help you serve as a last minute revision tool for the upcoming IAS Prelims 2016. UPSC is known to pitch in with factual questions in the Prelims Exam. A sincere student ends up missing out on them as a part of his/ her daily studies and here’s where such compilations come to rescue!

    #1. Defence Capability Enhancements 

    India’s biggest ship, aircraft carrier INS Vikramaditya, finally arrives

    source: NDTV.com

    INS Vikramaditya is a Kiev class aircraft carrier which was commissioned by Russian Navy in 1987 under the name Baku. It was later renamed as Admiral Gorshkov and last sailed in 1995 in Russia, before being offered to India. India agreed to buy it in 2004 for $974 million. The cost kept shooting up as Russia delayed the delivery by over five years.

    INS Kolkata – Biggest warship ever to be built in India till date

    source: NDTV.com

    INS Kolkata is the lead ship of the Kolkata-class stealth guided-missile destroyers of the Indian Navy. She was constructed at Mazagon Dock Limited (MDL), and was handed over to the navy on 10 July 2014. A bit of an old news but mightier still!

    • INS Kolkata, under the Project 15 Alpha, belongs to the destroyer class and is the first of three ships currently under construction
    • Being wholly constructed in the country, the ship provides credence to India’s defense capabilities in an geo-politically unstable world.

    #2. Technological Advancements

    Agni 5, India’s Longest Range Ballistic Missile (2015)

    • Agni-V is a solid fueled intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)
    • Range – 5,000 km
    • Nuclear capable – YES
    • Three Stage Missile – Solid Fuel
    • Strategic Missile – YES

    What’s the difference between a strategic and a tactical missile system?

    Strategic weapons are used for strategic purposes – threatening an opponent’s industrial infrastructure, targeting their command structure, and are generally designed to hit targets which disrupt the enemy’s ability to conduct warfare at a high level.

    Tactical weapons are for local battlefield use, and are designed to be deployed against targets strictly of immediate military value.

    NOTE: India has started the production of AGNI 6.

    Surface-to-air missile ‘Akash’ inducted in IAF (2015)

    source: Indianexpress.com
    • ‘Akash’ has been developed by DRDO as part of the Integrated Guided Missile Development
    • The missile can track a target 100 km away and hit the enemy’s helicopter, plane or drone from a 25-km distance

    Astra missile proves anti-jamming capability (2015)

    source: The Hindu
    • Astra is an active radar homing beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile (BVRAAM) developed by the DRDO
    • The missile is technologically more sophisticated than the nuclear capable Agni missile series of strategic ballistic missiles
    • The maximum range of Astra is 110 km in head-on chase and 20 km in tail chase
    • The Mark 2 version of Astra will have a maximum range of 150 km and tail chase range of up to 35 km

    The secretive submarine-launched K-4 – nuclear missile (2016)

    • A long range submarine-launched ballistic missile, codenamed K-4, capable of can strike targets upto 3,500 kilometres away
    • The K-4, a derivative of the more well known Agni ballistic nuclear missiles already in service, will be the most potent part of India’s nuclear deterrent
    • Incidentally, K-4 is named after APJ Abdul Kalam

    Indian Navy successfully test fires Barak-8

    • The firing was undertaken on the Western Seaboard by INS Kolkata, wherein the missile successfully intercepted an aerial target at extended ranges
    • Long Range Surface to Air Missile (LR SAM) – a significant milestone in enhancing its anti-air warfare capability
    • Developed jointly by India and Israel

    Anti-tank HeliNa missile hits targets in crucial test (2015)

    source: Linkedin.com
    • HeliNa is a helicopter-launched version of Nag and has been developed by the DRDO under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP)
    • HeliNa missile will be integrated with the weaponised version of the Advanced Light Helicopter Dhruv, the light combat helicopter produced by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited

    #3. Bonus for our readers

    Most of the time you are likely to be flummoxed by questions on tactical/ strategic – surface to surface missiles. Let’s list down all of them in order for you to remember and revise!

    Did we miss out on anything? Add to the growing list for prelims worthy questions.

     

  • Communicable and Non-communicable diseases – HIV, Malaria, Cancer, Mental Health, etc.

    Living with diabetes?

    Image: Source

  • Nobel and other Prizes

    Cells’ Toolbox for DNA repair honoured with Nobel Prize in Chemistry

    The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2015 is awarded to Tomas Lindahl (UK), Paul Modrich (USA) and Aziz Sancar (USA) for having mapped, at a molecular level, how cells repair damaged DNA and safeguard the genetic information.

    Their work has provided fundamental knowledge of how a living cell functions and is, for instance, used for the development of new cancer treatments.

    What’s the DNA repair toolbox ?

    Each day our DNA is damaged by UV radiation, free radicals and other carcinogenic substances, but even without such external attacks, a DNA molecule is inherently unstable.

    Thousands of spontaneous changes to a cell’s genome occur on a daily basis. Furthermore, defects can also arise when DNA is copied during cell division, a process that occurs several million times every day in the human body.

    The reason our genetic material does not disintegrate into complete chemical chaos is that a host of molecular systems continuously monitor and repair DNA.

    The Nobel laureate scientists, who have mapped how several of repair systems function at a detailed molecular level.

     

    Tomas Lindahl – Puts together the pieces of base excision repair

    In the early 1970s, scientists believed that DNA was an extremely stable molecule, but Tomas Lindahl demonstrated that DNA decays at a rate that ought to have made the development of life on Earth impossible. This insight led him to discover a molecular machinery, base excision repair, which constantly counteracts the collapse of our DNA.

    This was the start of 35 years of successful work, during which Tomas Lindahl has found and examined many of the proteins in the cell’s toolbox for DNA repair.

    Bit by bit, Lindahl pieced together a molecular image of how base excision repair functions, a process in which glycosylases, enzymes similar to the one he had found in 1974, are the first step in the DNA repair process.

    Base excision repair also occurs in human beings and, in 1996, Tomas Lindahl managed to recreate the human repair process in vitro.

    The decisive factor for Tomas Lindahl was the realisation that DNA inevitably undergoes change, even when the molecule is located in the cell’s protective environment. However, it had long been known that DNA can be damaged by environmental assaults such as UV radiation.

    The mechanism used by the majority of cells to repair UV damage, nucleotide excision repair, was mapped by Aziz Sancar, born in Savur, Turkey, and professionally active in the USA.

    Base Excision repair

    Aziz Sancar’s Nucleotide excision repair

    Aziz Sancar has mapped nucleotide excision repair, the mechanism that cells use to repair UV damage to DNA. People born with defects in this repair system will develop skin cancer if they are exposed to sunlight. The cell also utilises nucleotide excision repair to correct defects caused by mutagenic substances, among other things.

    Aziz Sancar’s ability to generate knowledge about the molecular details of the process changed the entire research field. He published his findings in 1983.

    He mapped the next stages of nucleotide excision repair. In parallel with other researchers, including Tomas Lindahl, Sancar investigated nucleotide excision repair in humans.

    The molecular machinery that excises UV damage from human DNA is more complex than its bacterial counterpart but, in chemical terms, nucleotide excision repair functions similarly in all organisms.

    nucleotide_excision_repair

     

    Paul Modrich – illustrating DNA mismatch repair

    Once his father, a biology teacher, said: “You should learn about this DNA stuff.” This was in 1963, the year after James Watson and Francis Crick had been awarded the Nobel Prize for discovering the structure of DNA.

    A few years later, that “DNA stuff” really became central to Paul Modrich’s life.

    Paul Modrich has demonstrated how the cell corrects errors that occur when DNA is replicated during cell division. This mechanism, mismatch repair, reduces the error frequency during DNA replication by about a thousandfold. Congenital defects in mismatch repair are known, for example, to cause a hereditary variant of colon cancer.

    In conclusion, the basic research carried out by the 2015 Nobel Laureates in Chemistry has not only deepened our knowledge of how we function, but could also lead to the development of lifesaving treatments.

    In the words of Paul Modrich: “That is why curiosity-based research is so important. You never know where it is going to lead
 A little luck helps, too.”

     

    Irish-born William Campbell and Japan’s Satoshi Omura won half of the prize for discovering avermectin, a derivative of which has been used to treat hundreds of millions of people with river blindness and lymphatic filariasis, or elephantiasis.

    China’s Tu Youyou was awarded the other half of the prize for discovering artemisinin, a drug that has slashed malaria deaths and has become the mainstay of fighting the mosquito-borne disease. She is China’s first Nobel laureate in medicine.

    Lets’s talk about Satoshi Omura’s invention

    Satoshi ƌmura

    So, how did the journey start for Satoshi Omura?

    Satoshi Omura, a Japanese microbiologist and expert in isolating natural products, focused on a group of bacteria, Streptomyces, which lives in the soil and was known to produce a plethora of agents with antibacterial activities (including Streptomycin discovered by Selman Waksman, Nobel Prize 1952).

    Equipped with extraordinary skills in developing unique methods for large-scale culturing and characterization of these bacteria, Omura isolated new strains of Streptomyces from soil samples and successfully cultured them in the laboratory.

    From many thousand different cultures, he selected about 50 of the most promising, one of these cultures later turned out to be Streptomyces avermitilis, the source of Avermectin, a medicine that has nearly eradicated river blindness and radically reduced the incidence of filariasis, which can cause the disfiguring swelling of the lymph system in the legs and lower body known as elephantiasis.

     

    Bacteria.

    Puzzle about River Blindness?

    Also known as onchocerciasis or Robles’ Disease, is caused by transmission of the parasitic worm Onchocerca volvulus by black flies of the genus Simulium. Vector lives near rivers, thus the name.Inside the host, the worms create larvae that travel to the skin, and infect other flies that bite the victim.

    Symptoms include severe itching, eruptions under the skin, and blindness. About 17-25 million are infected; some 0.8 million have some degree of vision loss. Most infections in sub-Saharan Africa.

    Then, what about Lymphatic Filariasis or Commonly known as elephantiasis ?

    It is tropical disease caused by transmission of parasites classified as nematodes (roundworms) of the family Filariodideato, to humans by mosquitoes.

    Adult worms lodge in lymphatic system and disrupt immune system. Causes abnormal enlargement of body parts, pain, severe disability and social stigma.

    Over 120 million people are infected, about 40 million disfigured or incapacitated. About 1.23 billion in 58 countries are threatened, 80% of whom live in 10 countries, including India, Bangladesh and Nepal.

    Our next Pioneer William C. Campbell

    William C. Campbell

    An expert in parasite biology working in the USA, acquired Omura’s Streptomyces cultures and explored their efficacy.

    Campbell showed that a component from one of the cultures was remarkably efficient against parasites in domestic and farm animals.

    The bioactive agent was purified and named Avermectin, which was subsequently chemically modified to a more effective compound called Ivermectin. 

    Ivermectin was later tested in humans with parasitic infections and effectively killed parasite larvae (microfilaria) .

    Collectively, Omura and Campbell’s contributions led to the discovery of a new class of drugs with extraordinary efficacy against parasitic diseases.

     

    Scheme.

     

    What a breakthrough, China’s first Nobel laureate in medicine, Let’s talk about it?

     

    Youyou Tu

    Ms. Youyou Tu, won Nobel in Medicine for a therapy against malaria.

    Malaria was traditionally treated by chloroquine or quinine, but with declining success. By the late 1960s, efforts to eradicate Malaria had failed and the disease was on the rise.

    At that time, Youyou Tu in China turned to traditional herbal medicine to tackle the challenge of developing novel Malaria therapies.

    Tu revisited the ancient literature and discovered clues that guided her in her quest to successfully extract the active component from Artemisia annua. 

    Tu was the first to show that this component, later called Artemisinin, was highly effective against the Malaria parasite, both in infected animals and in humans.

    Artemisinin represents a new class of antimalarial agents that rapidly kill the Malaria parasites at an early stage of their development, which explains its unprecedented potency in the treatment of severe Malaria.

     

    Herbal medicine

     

    How do you think these inventions will change the world?

    The discoveries of Avermectin and Artemisinin have fundamentally changed the treatment of parasitic diseases.

    Ivermectin is highly effective against a range of parasites, has limited side effects and is freely available across the globe.

    The importance of Ivermectin for improving the health and wellbeing of millions of individuals with River Blindness and Lymphatic Filariasis, primarily in the poorest regions of the world, is immeasurable.

    Treatment is so successful that these diseases are on the verge of eradication, which would be a major feat in the medical history of humankind. Malaria infects close to 200 million individuals yearly.

    Artemisinin is used in all Malaria-ridden parts of the world. When used in combination therapy, it is estimated to reduce mortality from Malaria by more than 20% overall and by more than 30% in children. For Africa alone, this means that more than 100 000 lives are saved each year.

    The discoveries of Avermectin and Artemisinin have revolutionized therapy for patients suffering from devastating parasitic diseases.

    Campbell, ƌmura and Tu have transformed the treatment of parasitic diseases. The global impact of their discoveries and the resulting benefit to mankind are immeasurable.

    Published with inputs from Arun

  • Gravitational Wave Observations

    Eureka moment: Gravitational waves found

     

    Recently, Gravitational waves, the cosmic ripples that distort space-time itself, have been directly detected for the first time. Let’s know about this unprecedented discovery!

    What is so special about this eureka moment?

    • For the first time, scientists have observed ripples in the fabric of space-time called gravitational waves, arriving at the earth from a cataclysmic event in the distant universe
    • This confirms a major prediction of Albert Einstein’s 1915 general theory of relativity and opens an unprecedented new window onto the cosmos
    • Physicists have concluded that the detected gravitational waves were produced during the final fraction of a second of the merger of two black holes to produce a single, more massive spinning black hole
    • This collision of two black holes had been predicted but never observed

    Let’s first know about Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity?

    • In 1905, Albert Einstein determined that the laws of physics are the same for all non-accelerating observers, and that the speed of light in a vacuum was independent of the motion of all observers. This was the theory of special relativity
    • It introduced a new framework for all of physics and proposed new concepts of space and time
    • Einstein then spent 10 years trying to include acceleration in the theory and published his theory of general relativity in 1915
    • In it, he determined that massive objects cause a distortion in space-time, which is felt as gravity

    [ Einstein’s mathematics showed that massive accelerating objects (such as neutron stars or black holes orbiting each other) would disrupt space-time in such a way that ‘waves’ of distorted space would radiate from the source ]

    What are Gravitational waves?

    Cataclysmic events, such as this artist's rendition of a binary-star merger, are believed to create gravitational waves that cause ripples in space-time
    Cataclysmic events, such as this artist’s rendition of a binary-star merger, are believed to create gravitational waves that cause ripples in space-time. Credits: NASA
    • Gravitational waves are distortions or ‘ripples’ in the fabric of space-time caused by some of the most violent and energetic processes in the Universe
    • These ripples would travel at the speed of light through the Universe, carrying with them information about their cataclysmic origins, as well as invaluable clues to the nature of gravity itself

    What are the Sources of Gravitational Waves?

    • Any object with mass that accelerates (which in science means changes position at a variable rate, and includes spinning and orbiting objects) produces gravitational waves, including humans and cars and airplanes etc.
    • But the gravitational waves made by us here on Earth are much too small to detect
    • The strongest gravitational waves are produced by catastrophic events such as colliding black holes, the collapse of stellar cores (supernovae), coalescing neutron stars or white dwarf stars, the slightly wobbly rotation of neutron stars that are not perfect spheres, and the remnants of gravitational radiation created by the birth of the Universe itself

    InfographLigo-gravitational-waves

    Not one but four types of Gravitational Waves!

    • In order to understand the types of gravitational waves, Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory (LIGO) scientists have defined 4 categories of gravitational waves
    • These categories are: Continuous Gravitational Waves, Compact Binary Inspiral Gravitational Waves, Stochastic Gravitational Waves, and Burst Gravitational Waves

    But, Why Detect Them?

    • This will open up a new window of study on the Universe, giving us a deeper understanding of these cataclysmic events, and usher in brand new cutting-edge studies in physics, astronomy, and astrophysics
    • More importantly, since gravitational waves don’t interact with matter (unlike electromagnetic radiation), they travel through the Universe completely unimpeded giving us a crystal clear view of the gravitational wave
    • This will provide astronomers and other scientists, first glimpses of previously unseen and unseeable wonders, and greatly adding to our understanding of the nature of space and time itself

    So, How does LIGO come into the Picture?

    • LIGO( Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory) is the world’s largest gravitational wave observatory and a cutting edge physics experiment
    • LIGO exploits the physical properties of light and of space itself to detect and understand the origins of gravitational waves
    • LIGO has 2 widely separated identical detector sites working in unison as a single “observatory”: one in Hanford, southeastern Washington State and the other in rural Livingston, Louisiana
    • LIGO has a very close collaboration with the VIRGO collaboration that analyzes data from VIRGO, a 3 km gravitational wave interferometer located near Pisa, Italy
    • Data from LIGO and Virgo are combined and analyzed together by the LIGO and Virgo collaborations
    • Thus significantly increasing the capability of combined data for detecting and using gravitational waves to learn about nature

    Is there any Way ahead for India?

    Image - Locations of existing gravitational-wave detectors, and how far out a LIGO in India would be Source: LIGO
    Image – Locations of existing gravitational-wave detectors, and how far out a LIGO in India would be. Source: LIGO
    • Yes, because Union cabinet has approved a proposal to establish a state-of-the-art gravitational wave observatory in India in collaboration with LIGO in the US
    • The project will bring unprecedented opportunities for scientists and engineers to dig deeper into the realm of gravitational wave and take global leadership in this new astronomical frontier
    • This will also bring considerable opportunities in cutting-edge technology for the Indian industry which will be engaged in the construction of the 8-km long beam tube at ultra-high vacuum on a leveled terrain
    • With its establishment, India will join the global network of gravitational wave detectors
    • The establishment of an observatory in India assumes importance because the further the distance between the observatories, the greater will be the accuracy in locating gravity waves
    • Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh are among the states shortlisted for the experiment

    Can we expect some answers from you guys?

    #Q. Recently, Union cabinet has approved a proposal to establish a gravitational wave observatory, one of the mega science projects in India. Discuss, how will this project help India if it becomes a reality.

     

    Published with inputs from Arun | Image: space.com

  • Simple acts like brushing your teeth may be polluting the environment

    The National Green Tribunal recently issued notices to the Union health, environment and water resources ministries seeking their comments on what has been done to identify and curb the growing threat of ‘microbeads’.

    Apart from being used in several personal care products, research studies showed presence of plastic microbeads in table salt also, which is one of the most basic ingredients used in cooking. It was also observed that the microbeads found in toothpaste can get stuck in our gums and lead to cancer. So let us have a closer look at ‘microbeads’ which are otherwise invisible to the naked eye.

    # What are ‘Microbeads’ / ‘ Microplastics’ ?

    Microbeads are plastic microspheres that are widely used in cosmetics as exfoliating agents and in personal care products such as toothpaste, as well as in biomedical and health science research.  According to the UNEP, microplastics are the most harmful pollutants currently choking the oceans.

    # What is all the fuss about these ‘beads’ ?

    These microbeads flow straight from the bathroom drain into the sewer system. Wastewater treatment plants are not designed to filter out microbeads and that is the main reason why, ultimately, they contribute to the Plastic Soup swirling around the world’s oceans. Sea creatures absorb or eat microbeads. These microbeads are passed along the marine food chain. Since humans are ultimately at the top of this food chain, it is likely that we are also absorbing microbeads from the food we eat. Microbeads are not biodegradable and once they enter the marine environment, they are impossible to remove.

    # What is the environmental fallout?

    Microplastics have been found on almost every beach worldwide, on polar icecaps and just about everywhere in the oceans. Apart from creating ‘plastic islands’ in the oceans, when plastics break down, more toxic substances which are harmful to humans and which cause hormonal imbalances or neurological diseases are released.

    Substantial quantities of microplastics in the ocean sink to the bottom. The amount of plastic on the ocean floor is 1000 times greater than the amount floating on the surface

    (Source: betthemicrobead.org)

    #Test Yourself

    # There is some concern regarding the use of microplastics in certain personal care products. Why?

    1. They may accumulate in the marine environment and release toxic substances.
    2. They may enter the food chain.
    3. They may cause diseases like cancer.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 1 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • The Strategic Importance of Space Law for India

    • There is a growing clamour for a comprehensive, legally binding treaty to commit nations to keep outer space a zone of peace.
    • With outer space becoming the fourth dimension of warfare, India cannot remain a mute spectator to the grim reality of final frontiers emerging as a new theatre of war.
    • For India, a comprehensive space act has become a critical necessity to give a greater level of acceleration to its space activities.

     

    Since the dawn of the space age heralded by the launch of Soviet Sputnik way back in October 1957, there has been a burgeoning growth in the global space activities, underpinning the need for a regulatory mechanism supported by a legal framework to facilitate the smooth, robust growth of the exploration of final frontiers without any negative fall outs for earthlings.

    There is a growing clamour for a comprehensive, legally binding treaty to commit nations to keep outer space a zone of peace. For obvious reasons, USA has expressed its opposition to such a treaty.

    The 1967 UN outer space treaty ratified by all the countries of the world is perhaps the first ever comprehensive legal mechanism aimed at regulating the global space activities. This treaty specifically forbids the use of outer space for testing and deploying weapons of destruction including nuclear devices.

    For it treats outer space as the common heritage of mankind meant for peaceful uses. Even so, countries including USA, former Soviet Union and China have exploited outer space for experimenting with anti- satellite and killer satellite systems.

    However, it is imperative for India to register its entry date so that the cut off date, whenever it comes as part of this proposed treaty, does not work to India’s disadvantage in so far as preparing for the country for space war is concerned.
    Indeed, with outer space becoming the fourth dimension of warfare, India cannot remain a mute spectator to the grim reality of final frontiers emerging as a new theatre of war.

    While legally binding international treaties are vitally essential to regulate the healthy and meaningful growth of space activities without any negative or problematic consequences for earthlings, individual space faring nations too should have their own space acts to regulate their space activities in consonance with dynamics of global space activities.

    For India, which has made a mark as a leading space faring nation in the aftermath of the successful probes to moon and Mars, a comprehensive space act has become a critical necessity to give a greater level of acceleration to its space activities.

    Increased private participation in Indian space activities would allow ISRO to concentrate on cutting edge areas of research and focus on deep space probes.

    And with the Indian Government making vigorous efforts to use space technology to drive a range of developmental and governance activities in the country, the need for a well conceived space act has become all the more pronounced.

    In this context, A.S.Kiran Kumar, Chairman, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) says that a detailed paper on the subject has already been submitted to the Indian Government, following a wide ranging discussions with academicians and legal experts in January 2015.

    He also made it clear that the proposed space act would need to be cleared by the Indian Parliament. According to Kumar, very few countries in the world have their own exclusive legislations pertaining to the use of outer space. But Kumar made the point that a law is necessary for the Government to spell out how it would go about tackling space related issues including untoward incidents.

    Right at the moment, ISRO continues to monopolise Indian space activities with Indian industries, in both the private and public sector, providing supplies and services on a modest scale. As such, the proposed Indian space act will have provisions to boost private participation in the rapidly expanding Indian space activities.

    On the commercial front, the proposed space law would open up the avenues for private players to enter the satellite and launch vehicle business of the country in a big way. Once the space act comes into force, private players will be in position to own and operate satellite systems as well as launch vehicles.

    For promoting Indian space business, now being spearheaded by the Bangalore based Antrix Corporation, the commercial arm of the Indian space programme, ISRO would need to step up its capability for building and delivering launch vehicles and satellites with a vastly enhanced frequency.

    For this strategy to assume a practical shape ISRO should encourage Indian industries to float consortium to build and deliver satellites and launch vehicles in a ready to use condition. Indeed, for this change over, a space act spelling out a dynamic and enhanced role for the Indian industry in the country’s space programme would work as a facilitator.

    The anti satellite test carried out by China in early 2007 heightened the clamour in India for preparing the country for the eventuality of a space war. In a stunning demonstration of its military might, China successfully destroyed its ageing weather watch satellite by using a modified version of a ground based ballistic missile.

    ISRO has already on hand a proposal to rope in private industries and encourage them float consortiums to build and launch four stage Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle(PSLV) described as a Indian space workhorse on a routine basis.
    To this end, it has mooted the idea of setting up a space industrial corridor close to Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), the Indian space port on the eastern coast of India.

    Similarly, ISRO is looking at the possibility of promoting an industrial park in Bangalore where in private industrial consortiums would take up the responsibility of building and delivering the satellites in a ready to use condition.

    For instance, the success of the European space transportation company, Arianespace, is not little due to the active participation of the European industries. Right at the moment, Arianespace accounts for around 60 percent of the global market for launching satellites on commercial terms. The Ariane vehicle deployed by Arianespace has proved to be a reliable and efficient space transportation system.

    ISRO, being a purely civilian set up with a mandate to promote the peaceful uses of outer space, the Indian defence set up will look at the prospect of having an exclusive agency to exploit the military potentials of outer space. In particular, the Indian defence establishment is exploring the possibility of setting up a launch pad dedicated to orbit military satellites.

    Against this backdrop, the Indian military set up will also scrutinise the draft of the Indian space act. Verily, the proposed space act should take care of the needs and concerns of military set up in terms of using outer space to sustain its strategic superiority.

    Indian defence experts have suggested the need for India to go in for both defensive and offensive space war strategy.

    In all probability, the Indian military establishment would press for addressing the issue of space security arising out of the efforts to deploy anti satellite and killer satellite devices.

    Similarly, the need for harnessing the potentials of space technology for military applications could be an important issue for the Indian defence set up. For ISRO, on account of its purely civilian mandate, cannot associate directly with any endeavour involving the space defence programme.

    It is in the fitness of things Indian defence experts have suggested the need for India to go in for both defensive and offensive space war strategy. The defensive aspect involves hardening of satellites against the machinations of the space based and ground based “killer devices” including anti satellite systems.
    Against this backdrop the proposed Indian space act should contain a legal provision to support a well defined space security plan to be unveiled by the Indian defence establishment.

    In particular the, tri service Indian aerospace command , which unfortunately is yet to be approved by the Indian Government , should have under its control a well equipped space and missile force to take care of all aspects of space war.

    “Agni-V can be used to launch mini satellites into a low earth orbit when access to one’s major satellite constellation gets disrupted” observed the then DRDO chief V.K.Saraswat

    Of course, Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has made it clear that it is capable of engineering “building blocks” of a killer satellite system to help prepare the country for the eventuality of a space war. What’s more, a modified version of the long range Agni-V missile can be used to launch defence satellites into a low earth orbit during emergency.

    Certainly it is well within the Indian capability to develop advanced technological elements to face the threat of a full fledged space war in the future. All that is required is the go ahead from the political dispensation in New Delhi.
    Whether the Narendra Modi led Government would take a bold decision to give a green signal for an Indian space war strategy, one would need to wait and watch.

    This article was first published here.

  • AYUSH – Indian Medicine System

  • Zika Virus Outbreak

    Everything you wanted to know about Zika virus

    The World Health Organization (WHO) expects that Zika virus, a mosquito-borne disease, spreading through the Americas, to affect between 3 million and 4 million people. Let’s analyse this in brief!

    Where was the first Zika virus outbreak identified?

    • Zika virus is an emerging mosquito-borne virus that was first identified in Uganda in 1947 in rhesus monkeys through a monitoring network of sylvatic yellow fever.
    • It was subsequently identified in humans in 1952 in Uganda and the United Republic of Tanzania.
    • Outbreaks of Zika virus disease have been recorded in Africa, the Americas, Asia and the Pacific.

    Trivia : Do you know why is it called Zika Virus?

    It was first isolated from Rhesus monkeys in Zika forest near Lake Victoria in Uganda.

    Find Out why was Ebola virus named as such?

     

    What makes this outbreak different?

    • The current outbreak, the first ever in the western hemisphere, is a big deal for a number of reasons
    • We now know that it’s not adults who have the most to lose but their unborn babies
    • Microcephaly is a condition where a baby is born with an abnormally small head and brain defects
    • Worldwide it affects only 1 in 30,000 to one in 250,000 newborns
    • In Brazil there are usually a few hundred cases annually at most, but since October 2015, there have been 3,500 new microcephaly cases

    But, what is microcephaly?

    • Microcephaly is a rare condition where a baby has an abnormally small head.
    • This is due to abnormal brain development of the baby in the womb or during infancy.
    • Babies and children with microcephaly often have challenges with their brain development as they grow older.
    • Microcephaly can be caused by a variety of environmental and genetic factors such as Downs syndrome; exposure to drugs, alcohol or other toxins in the womb; and rubella infection during pregnancy.

    How does the Zika virus spread?

    • Zika virus is transmitted to people through the bite of an infected mosquito from the Aedes genus, mainly Aedes aegypti in tropical regions
    • This is the same mosquito that transmits dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever
    • Zika virus disease outbreaks were reported for the first time from the Pacific in 2007 and 2013 (Yap and French Polynesia, respectively), and in 2015 from the Americas (Brazil and Colombia) and Africa (Cape Verde)

    How bad is it now?

    • As of January 23, 2016, the Zika virus has spread to 21 countries and territories of the Americas
    • It’s speculated that the virus must have arrived in Brazil along with the throngs that swept in during the 2014 FIFA World Cup
    • Things look so grim that governments of 4 South American countries are now advising women to not get pregnant until the situation is brought under control
    • The WHO has predicted that the virus is likely to spread all over North and South America, except for Chile and Canada where the Aedes aegypti mosquito is not present
    • The reason that the WHO thinks these countries are so susceptible is that their populations have not been exposed to the virus before and hence have no immunity

    Is there a cure?

    • No, there isn’t. There exists medication for symptomatic relief but these are quite useless now that we know about the microcephaly link
    • Research on the Zika virus is still quite primitive
    • Given its generic symptoms in adults, it’s very easy to miss or misdiagnose
    • Moreover, the virus doesn’t seem to show effects in common lab animals like mice and rats. Getting monkeys is extremely tough because of restrictions on primate research
    • Vaccine development and antiviral drug discovery efforts are on but this takes time, and with the Zika virus, we’ll be starting from scratch

    Does Brazil have a way out?

    • Brazil needs an immediate plan of action for more than one reason
    • Rio de Janeiro is frantically spraying insecticides at the parade grounds where the annual carnival celebrations will commence soon
    • In August, the city is due to host the Olympics

    What about India?

    • India is one of the Aedes aegyptis’s many homes but the Zika virus itself has not ever been detected in our country so far
    • However, in a study in the 1950s, healthy individuals from 6 Indian states showed passive immunity to the virus
    • This means that though their blood contained antibodies against the virus, this was not because they were exposed to the virus
    • Usually passive immunity is acquired through vaccines, from mother-to-child transmissions or breast milk
    • In the case of India, where the Zika virus is not known to exist, the antibodies probably arose from exposure to similar viruses
    • Nevertheless, theoretically, Zika can spread anywhere that the mosquito exists
    • That means India, too. Indians are just as susceptible if they travel to high-risk countries

     

    Is there something more that you wanted to know which we did not answer yet? Drop in with your questions.

     

    Published with inputs from Arun | Image - Outbreaknews

  • All that you need to remember about the Indian Remote Sensing satellite system

    Let’s clear up some basics from Indian Remote Sensing satellites, as we have seen it in the newscard @Civilsdaily App, but take a glance for IRS knowhow.

     

    Let’s first take a look in history?

    • The launch of India’s first civilian IRS-1A in March 1988, marked the beginning of a successful journey in the course of the Indian Space Programme.
    • The Indian Earth Observation activities carried out under the National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS).
    • With a host of payloads in the thematic series of Indian Remote Sensing Satellites (IRS) and the INSAT systems, the Indian Earth Observation (EO) system has been providing operational services to the user community.

    What is the IRS Satellite system?

    • The Indian Remote Sensing satellite system has one of the largest constellations of remote sensing satellites in operation in the world today.
    • IRS series of satellites provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions.
    • With these and the planned thematic series of satellites, such as Cartosat-3, Megha Tropiques, SARAL, and Insat-3D.
    • The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) is the focal point for distribution of remote sensing satellite data products in India and its neighboring countries.
    • NRSC has an earth station at Shadnagar, about 55 Km from Hyderabad, to receive data from almost all contemporary remote sensing satellites.

    But, What is Megha-Tropiques?

    • Megha-Tropiques is an Indo-French Joint Satellite Mission for studying the water cycle and energy exchanges in the tropics.
    • The main objective is to understand the life cycle of convective systems that influence the tropical weather and climate and their role in associated energy and moisture budget of the atmosphere in tropical regions.

     

    Let’s know some IRS satellites in brief

    RESOURCESAT – 1

    • RESOURCESAT – 1, the tenth satellite in IRS series, was launched onboard PSLV – C5 in 2003.
    • It was placed in 820 km high polar Sun Synchronous Orbit.
    • The images and data are being used for advanced applications like vegetation dynamics, crop yield estimates, disaster management support.

    CARTOSAT – 1

    • CARTOSAT – 1 was launched into a 617 km polar sun synchronous orbit in 2005 on board PSLV – C6 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), SHAR, Sriharikota.
    • The data from Cartosat-1 is used for the preparation of cartographic maps, cadastral mapping updation, land use and GIS applications.

    OCEANSAT – 2

    The main objectives of OCEANSAT – 2 are to study surface winds and ocean surface strata, observation of chlorophyll concentrations, monitoring of phytoplankton blooms, study of atmospheric aerosols and suspended sediments in the water.

    RISAT – 2

    • RISAT – 2 is a Radar Imaging Satellite using an active SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) imager with all weather capability to take images of the earth.
    • This Satellite will enhance ISRO’s capability for Disaster Management applications.
    • India’s first satellite with SAR and has a day-night, all-weather monitoring capability.

    SARAL

    • SARAL or Satellite with ARgos and ALtiKa is a cooperative altimetry technology mission of ISRO and CNES (Space Agency of France), was successfully launched on 25 February 2013.
    • The overall objectives are to assess development of operational oceanography, understanding of climate and developing forecasting capabilities.
    Published with inputs from Arun