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Subject: Science and Technology

  • What are Optical Atomic Clocks?

    Why in the News?

    Researchers conducted the most precise global comparison of 10 Optical Atomic Clocks to pave the way for redefining the second by 2030, replacing Caesium Clocks with more accurate Optical ones.

    Definition of a Second:

    • The current SI unit of time is based on caesium-133 (Cs) atomic clocks.
    • In 1967, one second was defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of a Cs-133 atom.
    • In these clocks, a microwave signal is tuned until Cs atoms react maximally, ensuring the frequency is precisely 9,192,631,770 Hz.
    • Frequency dividers count this microwave frequency, providing one tick per second, thus realizing the SI second.

    About Caesium Atomic Clocks:

    • Overview: Caesium atomic clocks are devices that define the current SI unit of time (second) using the oscillation frequency of caesium-133 atoms.
    • SI Second Standard: One second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of microwave radiation corresponding to the transition between two energy levels of the caesium-133 atom.
    • Working Principle: These clocks work by tuning microwave signals to resonate with caesium atoms and then counting the resulting waves to measure time precisely.
    • Stability and Usage: They are highly stable and have been used since 1967 to set international time standards.
    • Applications: They are used in GPS systems, telecommunications, scientific research, and by national metrology institutions like India’s National Physical Laboratory (NPL).
    • Accuracy: A typical caesium atomic clock loses about one second every 300 million years.

    What are Optical Atomic Clocks?

    • Overview: They are advanced timekeeping devices that use optical (visible light) frequency transitions in atoms like Strontium (Sr) or Ytterbium (Yb).
    • Measurement Basis: These clocks measure time based on the oscillation of light emitted when atoms transition between energy levels at hundreds of trillions of Hz.
    • Example Frequencies:
      • Strontium: ~429 trillion Hz
      • Ytterbium ions: over 642 trillion Hz
    • Precision Tools: They require lasers and optical frequency combs to count these rapid oscillations accurately.
    • Future Standard: They are being tested worldwide and are expected to replace caesium clocks by 2030 for redefining the SI second.

    How Optical Atomic Clocks are Better than Caesium ones?

    • Higher Frequency Operation: Optical clocks operate at much higher frequencies, allowing division of time into finer intervals.
    • Improved Precision: By counting 10,000 times more oscillations per second, optical clocks achieve significantly higher precision and stability.
    • Unmatched Accuracy: An optical atomic clock using strontium reportedly drifts by less than one second in 15 billion years, compared to 300 million years for caesium clocks.
    • Advanced Applications: Their precision is critical for: Next-gen GPS systems, Gravitational wave detection, Climate monitoring and research etc.
    • Ultra-High Synchronization: Optical clocks enable cross-continental synchronization at 18 decimal place accuracy, essential for global time coordination.
    • Noise Resilience: They offer greater resistance to environmental noise and external disturbances, improving long-term reliability.
    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following countries has its own Satellite Navigation System?

    Options: (a) Australia (b) Canada (c) Israel (d) Japan*

     

  • Quick fix: On India’s Research Development and Innovation scheme

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet has recently approved a ₹1-lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) scheme to encourage private companies to invest more in basic scientific research.

    What are the aims and design of the ₹1-lakh crore RDI scheme?

    • Promote Private Investment in Basic Research: The scheme aims to shift the R&D funding balance by incentivising the private sector to invest in foundational scientific research, reversing the current trend where the government contributes around 70% of total R&D spending.
    • Special Purpose Fund under ANRF: A dedicated fund will be set up within the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF), which will act as a custodian of ₹1-lakh crore and offer low-interest loans to eligible research projects.
    • Single-Window Clearance Mechanism: ANRF is designed as an independent institutional body with oversight from the Ministry of Science, providing a streamlined funding mechanism for universities and research institutions.
    • Targeting Mid-Stage Innovations (TRL-4 and Above): The scheme prioritises projects at Technology Readiness Level 4 or above, focusing on research that has demonstrated lab-scale feasibility and market potential, rather than early-stage, high-risk science.

    Why is ANRF’s role in research funding considered innovative?

    • Single-Window Clearance for R&D Funding: The Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) offers a unified platform to fund research across academic and industrial institutions, reducing bureaucratic delays. Eg: Instead of applying to multiple agencies like DST, DBT, and CSIR, universities can now approach ANRF for consolidated support.
    • Private Sector Integration in Basic Research: ANRF aims to source 70% of its budget from private players, incentivising corporate investment in long-term, foundational science rather than only market-ready products. Eg: Tech companies can fund AI or clean energy research at IITs through ANRF, blending commercial interest with academic innovation.
    • Bridging Academic-Industry Gaps: By acting as a funding bridge between universities, startups, and industries, ANRF fosters collaboration that accelerates the conversion of research into scalable solutions. Eg: A university developing a green hydrogen prototype can partner with a renewable energy firm under ANRFguidance and funding.

    How does the TRL-4 condition affect R&D inclusivity?

    • Excludes Early-Stage Fundamental Research: The requirement of Technology Readiness Level-4 (TRL-4) support means only projects with demonstrated application potential are eligible. This excludes TRL-1 to TRL-3 projects, which involve basic, foundational research. Eg: A university lab studying the quantum behaviour of materials may be denied funding despite its long-term potential.
    • Narrows Innovation Pipeline: Focusing only on mid-to-late stage research limits the scope for high-risk, high-reward innovation, which often begins at lower TRLs. This curbs diverse and disruptive innovations from entering the ecosystem. Eg: Internet and GPS started as risky low-TRL military projects—India might miss such breakthroughs by ignoring early research.

    What global lessons can India adopt to boost core innovation?

    • Invest in Early-Stage Research through Public Funding: Countries like the United States and Germany fund basic science heavily through institutions like the NSF and Max Planck Society, recognising that core innovation often starts at low Technology Readiness Levels (TRLs). Eg: The U.S. government’s early funding of ARPANET (precursor to the Internet) shows how foundational research can lead to transformative technologies.
    • Link Academia, Industry, and Government: Nations such as South Korea and Israel foster strong collaboration between universities, industries, and the state to accelerate innovation from lab to market. Eg: South Korea’s “Innovation Clusters” connect academic research with industrial application, leading to global tech giants like Samsung.

    Why does brain drain persist despite new research schemes?

    • Limited Research Infrastructure and Bureaucracy: Many Indian institutions lack state-of-the-art labs, smooth funding access, and administrative efficiency, discouraging cutting-edge work. Eg: A 2023 study by IISc found that over 40% of PhD graduates in STEM preferred postdoctoral positions abroad due to better facilities and research environments.
    • Lack of Competitive Salaries and Academic Freedom: Indian researchers often face lower salaries, rigid hierarchies, and limited autonomy compared to global peers. Eg: According to a DST report, Indian scientists earn 3–4 times less than those in OECD nations, prompting talent to settle in countries like the US and Germany.
    • Weak Industry-Academia Collaboration: Private sector investment in R&D is low, leading to few applied research opportunities or innovation ecosystems. Eg: In South Korea, over 75% of R&D is industry-funded, whereas India’s share is just around 37%, limiting prospects for applied researchers.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthen Research Ecosystems and Autonomy: Invest in world-class infrastructure, streamline funding mechanisms, and provide greater academic freedom to scientists and institutions to pursue innovative research without bureaucratic hurdles.
    • Enhance Industry Collaboration and Incentives: Foster stronger industry-academia linkages by offering tax benefits, matching grants, and innovation clusters to attract private R&D investment and create lucrative opportunities for researchers in India.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2024] What are the intellectual property rights with respect to life materials? Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.

    Linkage:  The article discusses the Union Cabinet’s approval of a ₹1-lakh crore Research Development and Innovation (RDI) scheme aimed at incentivizing the private sector to invest in basic research. This PYQ directly addresses the challenge of commercialization of patents in India, a critical bottleneck in the country’s innovation ecosystem that the implicitly highlights by article.

  • Vera C Rubin Observatory 

    Why in the News?

    The Vera C. Rubin Observatory has recently begun a 10-year project to study dark matter and dark energy using a 3,200-megapixel camera (of the Simonyi Survey Telescope) from its site in the Chilean Andes.

    Vera C Rubin Observatory 

    About Vera C. Rubin Observatory:

    • Location: The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is situated on Cerro Pachón in the Chilean Andes, at an altitude of 8,684 feet.
    • Naming: It is named after Vera C. Rubin, the astronomer who first provided robust observational evidence for the existence of dark matter in the 1970s.
    • Survey Duration: The observatory will carry out a 10-year continuous survey of the entire southern sky.
    • Data Volume: It is designed to collect approximately 20 terabytes of astronomical data per night.
    • Observation System: The telescope operates using an automated scripting system that selects observation targets dynamically, rather than through manual scheduling.
    • Objectives: Its key goals include understanding the formation of galaxies, identifying a possible ninth planet, detecting potentially hazardous asteroids, and studying the nature of dark matter and dark energy.

    Key Features:

    • Telescope Design: The observatory uses the Simonyi Survey Telescope, which features a three-mirror optical system for wide-field imaging.
    • How big is it: It has a field of view of 9.6 square degrees (compared to 0.04 sq. deg. for Hubble and 0.11 sq. deg. for James Webb), a 3,200-megapixel camera (vs. Hubble’s ~1.0 MP).
    • Field of View: It can capture a field of view equivalent to 40 full Moons in a single exposure — far wider than traditional space telescopes.
    • Spectral Filters: The camera includes six optical filters that capture data from across the electromagnetic spectrum, including ultraviolet and infrared light.
    • Slewing Speed: The telescope is the fastest-moving large telescope, capable of repositioning and stabilizing in just 5 seconds.
    • Imaging Frequency: It can take up to 1,000 images per night, allowing it to scan the entire sky every three nights.
    • Change Detection: Its automated software compares new and old images to detect changes, issuing up to 10 million alerts per night for transient astronomical events.

    Breakthrough Discoveries:

    • First Light: The observatory released its first test images on June 23, 2025.
    • Initial Discoveries: Within 10 hours of collecting engineering data, it identified 2,104 new asteroids, including 7 near-Earth objects (NEOs).
    • Expected Discoveries: Over the full 10-year mission, it is projected to discover over 5 million asteroids and around 100,000 NEOs.
    • Impact on Database: These findings would triple the current global inventory of known asteroids.
    • Universe Mapping: The observatory will produce the most detailed map of the large-scale structure of the universe to date.
    • Dark Matter Study: The data will support analysis of dark matter, which constitutes 27% of the universe’s composition.
    • Dark Energy Study: It will also help scientists understand dark energy, which makes up 68% of the universe and drives cosmic expansion.
    • Visible Matter Context: Only 5% of the universe is composed of visible matter, making the observatory’s data essential to studying the remaining 95%.
    [UPSC 2002] The world’s highest ground-based telescopic observatory is located in:

    Options: (a) Colombia (b) India (c) Nepal (d) Switzerland

     

  • How Heat led to Protocells formation on Earth?

    Why in the News?

    A new Nature Physics study suggests that warm volcanic rock surfaces may have concentrated organic molecules in watery cracks, triggering life-like chemistry—offering a clue to how protocells formed without membranes before life began.

    What are Protocells?

    • Overview: Protocells are primitive, cell-like bubbles believed to be early precursors of real biological cells. They were not fully alive but provided a space for early chemical interactions.
    • Lack of Complexity: These structures lacked complex parts like organelles or DNA systems but could hold important molecules like RNA and amino acids together.
    • Membrane Role: Protocells often formed simple membranes or boundaries, which allowed molecules to stay enclosed and interact more easily—helping early reactions like protein synthesis happen.
    • Importance: Although not living, they offered a model of how basic chemistry could evolve into biology, bridging the gap between non-living and living systems.

    History of Formation of Protocells:

    • Early Earth Conditions: Over 3.5 billion years ago, Earth’s surface had warm water pools and volcanic cracks filled with organic molecules made by natural processes like lightning.
    • Compartmentalization: The first step toward life was concentrating useful molecules in one place, so they could start reacting—this led to the idea of bubble-like protocells.
    • Old Theories: In the 1920s, Oparin and Haldane proposed that life began in a “primordial soup” with spontaneous chemical reactions in early Earth’s oceans.
    • Modern Insights: Newer research suggests cracks in volcanic rock or hydrothermal vents created temperature gradients and water flows that helped form protocells—no complex membranes were needed.

    Key Findings in the 2025 Study:

    • Lab Setup: Scientists created a 170-micrometre chamber with a warm top (40°C) and cool bottom (27°C), simulating early Earth rock cracks.
    • DNA Test: They added DNA and a protein-making kit (PURExpress). Only in the warm-cool chamber did the DNA make green fluorescent protein (GFP), showing real protein synthesis.
    • Molecule Gathering: Essential items like DNA, magnesium, and phosphate ions gathered more at the bottom—up to 70 times more concentrated than at the top.
    • Cell-Like Behavior: Even without a membrane, the system kept useful molecules inside while letting waste escape, mimicking real cell selectivity.
    • Big Implication: This experiment supports the idea that life could start in simple natural environments using just heat, flow, and basic chemicals—long before full cells appeared.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed every few hundred thousand years.

    2. When the Earth was created more than 4000 million years ago, there was 54% oxygen and no carbon dioxide.

    3. When living organisms originated, they modified the early atmosphere of the Earth. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • [pib] SAKSHAM-3000  

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Communications has launched SAKSHAM-3000, a 25.6 Tbps indigenous switch-cum-router, to boost India’s data, cloud, and telecom infrastructure, marking a major leap in advanced networking technology.

    What is SAKSHAM-3000?

    • Overview: It is a high-speed switch-cum-router developed by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) to strengthen India’s digital infrastructure.
    • Indigenous Operating System: The device runs on CROS (C-DOT Router Operating System), enabling modular, scalable, and secure network operations.
    • Next-Gen Capability: It is designed for ultra-fast data transmission, offering up to 25.6 Terabits per second (Tbps) throughput.
    • Use Cases: It is suitable for data centres, 5G/6G networks, AI systems, and hyperscale computing clusters.
    • Cloud and Telecom Ready: It supports cloud-native deployments, legacy protocols, and future network architectures simultaneously.

    Technical Highlights and Capabilities:

    • Massive Throughput: It supports 32 ports of 400G Ethernet and multiple speeds from 1G to 400G, delivering full 25.6 Tbps capacity.
    • Wire-Speed Performance: Data packets are processed at line rate, ensuring real-time transmission with no bottlenecks.
    • Time-Sensitive Applications: It includes support for Precision Time Protocol (PTP) and Synchronous Ethernet (Sync-E) to ensure accurate timing in industrial and telecom networks.
    • Full Protocol Support: It is compatible with Layer-2 switching, IP routing, and Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) for broad network configurations.
    • Traffic Management: Features like Weighted Round Robin (WRR) and Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) improve traffic handling and reduce congestion.
    • Energy Efficiency: It uses a power-optimized architecture, balancing high performance with low power consumption for sustainable data centre use.
    • Flexible Licensing: Enterprises and telecom providers can customize licensing models for cost-effective scalability based on specific deployment needs.
    [UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘LiFi’, recently in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. It uses light as the medium for high-speed data transmission. 2. It is a wireless technology and is several times faster than ‘WiFi’.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • Endocrine Disruptors in Plastic Waste

    Why in the News?

    Microplastics and endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are infiltrating the human body, affecting everything from reproduction to cancer risk, metabolism, and child development.

    About Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals:

    • What They Are: Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals interfere with the body’s hormone system, affecting growth, reproduction, mood, and metabolism.
    • How They Work: They mimic or block natural hormones like estrogen, testosterone, thyroid hormones, and cortisol, leading to disrupted hormonal signals.
    • Why They’re Dangerous: Even low-level exposure during pregnancy or puberty can cause lasting harm.
    • How We’re Exposed: Through eating contaminated food, inhaling polluted air, or skin contact with certain plastics or cosmetics.
    • Where They’re Found: In plastic bottles (Bisphenol A), toys and cosmetics (phthalates like Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate), food wrappers (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances), and pesticides (dioxins, Polychlorinated Biphenyls).
    • Hidden Harm: They act silently, with long-term effects such as fertility loss, hormonal disruption, or cancer.

    Impact on Human Health:

    • Reproductive Harm: Reduced sperm quality disrupted menstrual cycles, and increased miscarriage risk. Found in semen, placenta, and breast milk.
    • Hormonal Disruption: Chemicals like Bisphenol A trigger early puberty, thyroid issues, and hormonal imbalances.
    • Cancer Risk: Linked to cancers of the breast, uterus, testicles, and prostate. Several are labeled probable carcinogens by global health agencies.
    • Metabolic Effects: Interfere with insulin, promote obesity and type 2 diabetes. PFAS chemicals are linked to liver and heart disease.
    • Brain and Behavior: Associated with ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ in children, especially when exposure happens early in life.
    • Across Generations: May cause gene expression changes that affect health in future generations—even without direct exposure.
    [UPSC 2020] Why is there a great concern about the ‘microbeads’ that are released into environment?

    Options: (a) They are considered harmful to marine ecosystems * (b) They are considered to cause skin cancer in children (c) They are small enough to be absorbed by crop plants in irrigated fields. (d) They are often found to be used as food adulterants.

     

  • [pib] Indian Scientists created high-performance Supercapacitor Material

    Why in the News?

    Scientists from Bengaluru, in collaboration with Aligarh Muslim University, have developed an advanced material that significantly improves supercapacitor performance.

    What are Supercapacitors?

    • Fast-Charging Energy Devices: Supercapacitors are special tools that store and release energy very quickly, much faster than regular batteries.
    • Used in Modern Technology: They are found in phones, electric vehicles, and solar systems where fast energy delivery is needed.
    • Trade-Off in Storage: While they charge faster, they generally hold less energy than traditional batteries.
    • Ongoing Scientific Efforts: Researchers are trying to increase energy capacity without sacrificing their quick-charging abilities.

    About Lanthanum-Doped Silver Niobate:

    • New Material from Indian Scientists: A research team from Bengaluru and Aligarh Muslim University created a better material for supercapacitors.
    • Silver Niobate as Base: They used silver niobate, which is non-toxic and eco-friendly, as the base material.
    • Improved by Lanthanum Doping: They added lanthanum, a rare metal, to help enhance electrical performance — a method called doping.
    • Smaller Particles, Bigger Surface: The particles became smaller, increasing the surface area for energy storage.

    What makes this material special?

    • Better with Use: The material retained 118% of its capacity after repeated use, showing it improved over time.
    • 100% Energy Efficiency: It wasted no energy during charge or discharge, making it highly efficient.
    • Quick and Smooth Performance: It delivered energy faster and more steadily than previous materials.
    • Proven in Real-World Test: A test device using this material could power an LCD screen, proving practical use.
    • Eco-Friendly Choice: It is lead-free and safe for the environment.
    • Future Potential: Scientists hope to apply this method to other materials and scale up for commercial use in electronics, EVs, and solar tech.
    [UPSC 2022] With reference to India, consider the following statements:

    1. Monazite is a source of rare

    earths. 2. Monazite contains thorium. 3. Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India. 4. In India, Government bodies only can process or export monazite.

    Which of the statements given above are correct ?

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only* (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • [pib] Breakthrough in Altermagnets Study

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at S N Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences (SNBNCBS) have discovered a novel transport behaviour in chromium antimonide (CrSb), a member of the emerging class of magnetic materials called altermagnets.

    What are Altermagnets?

    • Definition: Altermagnets are a new class of magnetic materials that combine properties of ferromagnets (which show external magnetism) and antiferromagnets (which don’t).
    • Unique Feature: They don’t attract metals like fridge magnets but still have active internal magnetic behavior, useful in advanced technology.
    • Use in Spintronics: These materials are ideal for spintronics, a technology that uses electron spin (not just charge) to make faster and energy-efficient devices.
    • No Magnetic Interference: Altermagnets do not create external magnetic fields, so they are stable and safe for nearby electronics.
    • Energy Efficient: Their structure helps reduce heat and energy loss, which is perfect for modern low-power gadgets.
    • Scientific Rarity: Very few altermagnets are known, making each discovery important for materials science.
    • Potential Applications: They could help build smaller memory chips, faster processors, and even support quantum computing.
    • Internal Action: Think of them as “quiet magnets” — they work inside devices without magnetic noise.

    Recent Discovery- Chromium Antimonide (CrSb):

    • Indian Breakthrough: Indian scientists found CrSb, a new altermagnet, showing rare direction-dependent conduction.
    • Directional Behavior: CrSb acts as an n-type material when current flows along its layers, and as a p-type when current flows across them.
    • First of its Kind: This is the first time an altermagnet has shown such dual conduction behavior in different directions.
    • Device Simplification: Since CrSb can behave as both p-type and n-type, it can reduce circuit size and eliminate the need for doping.
    • Eco-friendly Material: CrSb is made from non-toxic, common elements, making it ideal for sustainable electronics.
    • Potential Applications:
      • Future Potential: CrSb could be used in solar cells, batteries, and processors to make them greener and more efficient.
      • Environment-Friendly Tech: CrSb enables low-cost and eco-friendly electronics without sacrificing performance.
    [UPSC 2021] Magnetite particles, suspected to cause neurodegenerative problems, are generated as environmental pollutants from which of the following? 1. Brakes of motor vehicles 2. Engines of motor vehicles 3. Microwave stoves within homes 4. Power plants 5. Telephone lines Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 only* (c) 3, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

     

  • Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange (EPABX) in Modern Communication

    Why in the News?

    In most modern office environments, internal and external communication is managed through a technology known as EPABX — Electronic Private Automatic Branch Exchange.

    About EPABX:

    • What is it: It is a system used by offices to manage internal and external phone calls efficiently.
    • Internal and External Communication: It enables intercom communication within the organisation and provides access to external telephone lines through a unified network.
    • Call Handling Features: EPABX can route, transfer, forward, or hold calls, reducing the need for multiple phone lines and improving overall communication.
    • Modern Features: Advanced EPABX systems offer voicemail, call recording, automated attendants, and digital tool integration for business productivity.

    How EPABX Works?

    • Starting a Call: When the phone is picked up, an off-hook signal goes to the EPABX, which responds with a dial tone.
    • Making Internal Calls: Users dial an extension number (like 104), and the EPABX connects them through its internal switching system.
    • Making External Calls: To reach outside numbers, users dial an access code (usually 0) followed by the number; EPABX connects via the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
    • Handling Incoming Calls: Calls from outside are routed to the right extension using either a receptionist or an automated system (IVR) in newer setups.
    • Switching Logic: The EPABX system works like a railway yard, directing signals along the correct path between the caller and the recipient.

    Advancements in EPABX Technology:

    • Early Systems: Older EPABX systems used electromechanical switches like crossbars for call routing.
    • Digital Transition: Since the 1980s, systems adopted Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) to digitise and share voice signals over fewer lines.
    • VoIP Technology: Modern EPABX uses Voice over IP (VoIP) to transmit calls over the internet, similar to email routing using IP addresses.
    [UPSC 2019] With reference to communication technologies, what is/are the difference / differences between LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term Evolution)?

    1. LTE ‘is commonly marketed as 3G and VoLTE is commonly marketed as advanced 3G.

    2. LTE is data-only technology and VoLTE is voice-only technology.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only  (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

  • India’s first Genomic Atlas reveals deep Ancestry and Health Risks

    Why in the News?

    A landmark study published in the ‘Cell’ journal has sequenced the genomes of 2,762 Indians from 23 states and union territories, creating the most comprehensive genomic map of India to date.

    About the Genomic Atlas:

    • Overview: The Genomic Atlas is the most comprehensive genetic mapping of Indian populations, covering caste, tribe, language, geography, and urban-rural distinctions.
    • Collaboration: It was conducted by Indian and international institutions, aiming to understand how ancient migrations and social structures shaped Indian genomes.
    • Use of Molecular Clocks: Researchers used genetic mutations as molecular clocks to trace human ancestry and map the evolutionary history of diverse groups in India.
    • Focus on Disease and Ancestry: The study explores recessive disorders, disease-linked mutations, and interbreeding with archaic humans like Neanderthals and Denisovans.
    • Scope: Plans include expanding coverage to more isolated communities and building tools to track disease origins within genetically distinct Indian groups.
    • Impact on Precision Medicine: It aims to improve personalised healthcare by incorporating Indian genetic diversity into global medical research.

    Key Highlights of the Study:

    • Discovery of New Gene Variants: Over 2.6 crore previously undocumented genetic variants were discovered, many of which are absent from international gene databases.
    • Single-origin migration: Indians descend primarily from a single out-of-Africa migration ~50,000 years ago, not earlier human groups.
    • Three major ancestral components:
      • Ancient Ancestral South Indians (AASI) – early hunter-gatherers.
      • Iranian-related Neolithic farmers – from Sarazm (~4th millennium BCE).
      • Eurasian Steppe pastoralists – arrived around 2000 BCE, tied to Indo-European languages.
    • Additional East Asian ancestry: Found in East, Northeast, and some Central Indian populations (e.g., 5% in West Bengal), likely post-Gupta or rice cultivation-related (~520 CE).
    • Caste endogamy impacts: Long-term inbreeding within castes has led to high homozygosity, raising the risk of recessive genetic diseases.
    • Archaic DNA: Indian genomes show rich Neanderthal and Denisovan segments, especially in immune-related genes like MHC, TRIM, and BTNL2.
    • Unique health risks: A BCHE variant linked to anaesthetic reaction is enriched in Telangana; 7% of discovered protein-altering variants relate to serious genetic disorders.
    • Every individual had at least one genetic relative in the sample—revealing extreme interrelatedness and strong founder effects, particularly in South India.
    • Unmatched Neanderthal diversity: India harbours the widest variety of Neanderthal-derived genetic fragments among global populations.
    [UPSC 2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements:

    1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondrial replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of the egg.

    2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from the mother and not from the father.

    Options: Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2