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Subject: Science and Technology

  • Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Bacteria

    Why in the News?

    • Due to increasing antimicrobial resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), many existing antibiotics are becoming less effective.
      • As a result, researchers are studying Mtb to identify key proteins and design new drugs to target them.

    What is Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb)?

    • Mtb is the bacterium that causes tuberculosis (TB), affecting the lungs and sometimes spreading to other organs.
    • It spreads through airborne droplets from coughing or sneezing by an infected person.
    • Mtb can remain dormant in the body for years without causing active disease.
    • It infects macrophages, immune cells designed to destroy invaders, but instead, Mtb survives and multiplies inside them.

    What do various studies say?

    • A 2024 CSIR-CCMB study showed that Mtb uses cysteine synthase enzymes to survive oxidative stress.
    • A 2017 Karolinska Institute study identified 71 compounds that inhibit these enzymes, improving the effectiveness of antibiotics like isoniazid.
    • Researchers found that Mtb’s ability to evade the immune system is due to its long evolution with humans.
    • Other studies focus on Mtb’s phosphate and carbon metabolism, critical for its survival in hostile environments.
    • Ways for effective medicine development:
      • Target enzymes like CysK2 and CysM to weaken Mtb’s defence mechanisms.
      • Study Mtb’s metabolic pathways to identify vulnerabilities for new drug development.
      • Explore how Mtb develops antibiotic resistance and find ways to overcome it.
      • Investigate how Mtb evades immune responses by manipulating immune cells.
      • Combine new inhibitors with existing antibiotics to enhance treatment efficacy.

    PYQ:

    [2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without Doctor’s prescription, be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.

  • Why precision medicine in India can’t advance without biobank laws?

    Why in the News?

    Precision medicine is ushering in a new era of personalized healthcare, with its foundations taking shape during the completion of the Human Genome Project by scientists.

    What is the current legal framework governing biobanks in India?

    • Lack of Comprehensive Legislation: India lacks specific, comprehensive laws governing biobanks. The current framework consists of guidelines rather than enforceable laws, creating gaps in the regulation of biobanking practices.
    • National Ethical Guidelines by ICMR: The Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR) has issued guidelines on ethical practices in biomedical research involving human participants. However, these guidelines are not legally binding and do not address all aspects of biobanking, such as long-term storage and data sharing.
    • Department of Biotechnology (DBT) Standards: The DBT has certain practices in place for data storage and analysis, but these also lack enforceability and do not fully cover issues such as informed consent and privacy.
    • Absence of a Single Regulatory Authority: India currently does not have a dedicated regulatory authority to oversee biobanks, which leads to inconsistencies and limited oversight in biobanking activities.

    How do privacy concerns impact biobank operations and precision medicine?

    • Informed Consent Issues: Participants often give consent without detailed information about how their biological samples and associated data will be used, who will have access, and for how long. This lack of transparency raises privacy concerns.
    • Genetic Data Privacy Risks: Genetic information can reveal intimate details about an individual’s health and predisposition to diseases, potentially affecting their family members. If data privacy is not robustly protected, it may lead to genetic discrimination in insurance or employment.
    • Data Sharing Without Proper Regulation: In the absence of clear legal provisions, data or samples could be shared without proper consent, risking misuse by pharmaceutical companies or research organizations, including foreign entities.
    • Impact on Public Trust: Weak data and privacy protections may reduce public willingness to participate in biobank projects, thus limiting the scale and diversity necessary for effective precision medicine research.

    What are the ethical implications of biobanking practices in India?

    • Ownership and Benefit Sharing: Without legal protections, there is ambiguity regarding the ownership of biological samples. Individuals contributing samples may not receive benefits from commercial applications resulting from their data, raising ethical concerns about fair compensation.
    • Consent Transparency: Participants may not fully understand the scope of their consent, especially regarding future uses of their samples and data. This lack of clarity can be considered ethically problematic, as it may involve the exploitation of participants’ contributions.
    • Risk of Misuse or Mismanagement: Inconsistent regulations and the absence of penalties for ethical violations create a risk of mishandling samples, unauthorized data access, and exploitation, which may compromise research integrity.
    • Discrimination Risks: Genetic information obtained from biobanks could be used to discriminate against individuals based on their health risks or genetic traits, which raises concerns about ethical and legal safeguards.

    Way forward: 

    • Establish Comprehensive Legislation: Develop and implement a comprehensive legal framework specifically governing biobanks, including clear guidelines on informed consent, data protection, ownership rights, and benefit sharing.
    • Create a Regulatory Authority: Establish a dedicated regulatory authority to oversee biobank operations, ensuring compliance with ethical standards and legal requirements.

  • Issues in the treatment of ‘rare diseases’, and what the govt can do?

    Why in the News?

    The Delhi High Court recently issued directives to enhance the availability of “orphan drugs” to combat rare diseases.

    About the Delhi High Court Verdict:

    • The Delhi High Court issued directions aimed at improving the availability of “orphan drugs,” which are used to treat rare diseases.
    • This intervention seeks to address challenges related to the high cost of these treatments and the barriers to access for patients with rare diseases in India.

    Rare Diseases in India and Their Classification:

    • Definition: According to the World Health Organization (WHO), rare diseases are debilitating, lifelong conditions that affect 1 or fewer individuals in 1,000.
    • Conditions Recognized as Rare Diseases in India: Approximately 55 conditions, including Gaucher’s disease, Lysosomal Storage Disorders (LSDs), and certain muscular dystrophies, are classified as rare diseases.
    • National Registry: The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) manages the National Registry for Rare and Other Inherited Disorders (NRROID), which has documented 14,472 patients with rare diseases.

    Classification of Rare Diseases in India:

    • Group 1: Diseases that can be treated with a one-time curative procedure (e.g., certain enzyme replacement therapies).
    • Group 2: Conditions requiring long-term or lifelong treatment, which are relatively less expensive and have documented benefits. Regular medical check-ups are necessary for patients.
    • Group 3: Diseases for which effective treatments are available, but they are highly costly and require ongoing, lifelong therapy. Selecting beneficiaries for these treatments presents a challenge due to the high costs.

    Current Funding Policy in India:

    • National Policy for Rare Diseases (NPRD) 2021: Launched to provide financial support for the treatment of rare diseases. Patients receiving treatment at designated Centres of Excellence (CoE) can get financial assistance up to Rs 50 lakh.
    • Centres of Excellence: The CoEs include institutions such as AIIMS in Delhi, PGIMER in Chandigarh, and the Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research at Kolkata’s SSKM Hospital.
    • Crowdfunding and Voluntary Donations Portal (2022): The Health Ministry launched a digital platform that allows donors to contribute toward the treatment of rare disease patients at CoEs. The portal provides details about patients, their conditions, estimated treatment costs, and bank account information of the CoEs.
     

    Did you know?

    • Murine Typhus (a rare disease) is a flea-borne bacterial disease caused by Rickettsia typhi, transmitted through infected flea bites, primarily from rodents and not contagious between humans.
    • A 75-year-old man from Kerala’s capital Thiruvananthapuram was recently diagnosed with Murine Typhus after travelling to Vietnam and Cambodia.

    Challenges Associated with Orphan Drugs:

    • Limited Treatment Options: Therapies are available for fewer than 5% of rare diseases, resulting in less than 10% of patients receiving disease-specific treatment.
    • High Treatment Costs: Many existing therapies for rare diseases are prohibitively expensive, putting a significant financial burden on patients and their families.
    • Regulatory Delays: Approval processes, such as those from the Drug Controller General of India (DCGI), can be slow. For instance, delays in approving US-based Sarepta Therapeutics’ medicines in India have affected the timely availability of treatments.
    • Bureaucratic Hurdles: Decision-making delays and administrative red tape further complicate access to necessary drugs, impacting patient care.
    • Challenges in Beneficiary Selection: Due to high treatment costs, identifying and prioritizing beneficiaries for financial assistance is difficult, potentially leaving some patients without support.

    Way forward: 

    • Streamline Regulatory Approvals: Expedite the approval process for orphan drugs by reducing bureaucratic hurdles and establishing a fast-track mechanism for essential treatments, ensuring timely access to life-saving medications.
    • Increase Financial Support and Expand Coverage: Enhance the funding cap under the National Policy for Rare Diseases and extend financial assistance to more patients, while encouraging public-private partnerships and innovative funding mechanisms like insurance coverage for rare disease treatments.

  • What is Wayanad’s new X-band Radar?

    Why in the News?

    After the floods and landslides in Wayanad in July 2024, the Union Ministry of Earth Sciences approved the installation of an “X-band radar” in the district.

    What is an X-Band Radar?

    • An X-band radar is a type of radar that operates in the 8-12 GHz frequency range of the electromagnetic spectrum, with wavelengths of 2-4 cm.
    • This radar is particularly useful for detecting smaller particles like raindrops, fog, and other fine materials due to its shorter wavelengths, which allow for higher resolution images.

    Key Features of X-Band Radar:

    • High Resolution: The shorter wavelength provides more detailed images, making it ideal for tracking weather phenomena, including precipitation and particle movements.
    • Limited Range: They have a relatively shorter range compared to other types like S-band radars because higher frequency signals get attenuated (weakened) faster as they travel through the atmosphere.

    Applications: In weather forecasting, X-band radars are used for short-range weather monitoring, such as predicting rainfall intensity and landslides. They are also used in air traffic control and military applications.

    What is a Doppler Radar?  

    • A Doppler radar is a type of radar used primarily in meteorology to measure the velocity and movement of weather formations, such as clouds and storms.
    • It works on the principle of the Doppler effect, which refers to the change in frequency of waves as their source moves relative to the observer.

    It’s applications: 

    • Velocity Measurement: By measuring these changes in frequency, Doppler radar can determine how fast the object (e.g., rain cloud) is moving and in which direction.
    • Weather Monitoring: Doppler radar helps in tracking rainfall intensity, detecting wind patterns, and predicting the formation of storms or tornadoes.

    India’s Radar Network

    • The India Meteorological Department (IMD) began using radars in weather applications in the 1950s.
      • The first indigenously designed X-band storm detection radar was installed in 1970 in New Delhi.
    • In 1996, the IMD replaced 10 outdated X-band radars with digital X-band radars.
    • India’s radar network includes both wind-finding and storm-detecting X-band radars. The country also uses S-band radars (2-4 GHz) for long-range detection. The first S-band cyclone detection radar was installed in Visakhapatnam in 1970.

    Recent Developments:

    • In September 2024, the Ministry of Earth Sciences announced that India would install 56 additional Doppler radars over the next few years.
    • On September 11, 2024, the Union Cabinet approved the ₹2,000-crore ‘Mission Mausam’, which aims to upgrade meteorological infrastructure, including the installation of up to 60 radars by 2026.
    • The Wayanad radar initiative also includes the installation of a C-band radar (4-8 GHz) in Mangaluru, with an observational range of 250 km.

    About the NISAR

    • NISAR, short for NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar, is a joint satellite mission being developed by NASA and ISRO.
    • NISAR will use radar imaging to create a high-resolution map of the earth’s landmasses, tracking changes in natural processes.
    • Its payload consists of an L-band radar (1.25 GHz, 24 cm) built by NASA and an S-band radar (3.2 GHz, 9.3 cm) built by ISRO.
    • NISAR is expected to launch in 2025 aboard an ISRO GSLV Mk II rocket, with a total cost of $1.5 billion, primarily funded by NASA.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development?

  • What are Synthetic Medical Images?

    Synthetic medical images are AI-generated images created without using traditional imaging devices like MRI, CT scans, or X-rays.

    Why in the News?

    As we consider how artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming various fields, one emerging area is the use of synthetic medical images in healthcare.

    What are Synthetic Medical Images?

    • Synthetic medical images are AI-generated images created without using traditional imaging devices like MRI, CT scans, or X-rays.
    • These images are constructed using mathematical models or AI techniques, such as generative adversarial networks (GANs), diffusion models, and autoencoders.

    Advantages offered

    • Intra- and Inter-Modality Translation: Generate images from the same or different types of scans, helping when certain scans are unavailable.
    • Privacy Protection: Created without patient data, reducing privacy concerns and easing data sharing for research.
    • Cost and Time Efficiency: Synthetic images are quicker and cheaper to generate compared to real medical scans.
    • Scalability: Easier to produce large volumes of medical data for AI training and research.

    Challenges posed

    • Potential for Misuse: Could be used to create medical deepfakes, leading to fraudulent claims or fake clinical findings.
    • Lack of Real-World Complexity: May not capture subtle details found in real medical data, potentially lowering diagnostic accuracy.
    • Truth Erosion: Relying too heavily on synthetic data may distort AI models, leading to diagnoses that don’t align with real-world cases.
    • Ethical and Regulatory Concerns: Questions around how these images should be controlled and monitored to avoid misuse.

    PYQ:

    [2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?

    1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
    2. Create meaningful short stories and songs
    3. Disease diagnosis
    4. Text-to-Speech Conversion
    5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only

    (b) 1, 3 and 4 only

    (c) 2, 4 and 5 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

  • [pib] WHO declares that India has eliminated Trachoma as a public health problem in 2024

    Why in the News?

    • The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared that India has successfully eliminated Trachoma as a public health problem.
      • This makes India the third country in the Southeast Asia Region to achieve this milestone.
    • WHO has classified Trachoma as a neglected tropical disease (NTD).
    • WHO estimates that around 150 million people worldwide are affected by Trachoma, and 6 million of them are either blind or at risk of severe visual problems.
    • Trachoma is commonly found in underprivileged communities living in poor conditions.

    What is Trachoma?

    • Trachoma is a bacterial infection that affects the eyes.
    • It is caused by the bacterium Chlamydia Trachomatis.
    • It is contagious, spreading through contact with the eyes, eyelids, or secretions from the nose or throat of an infected person.
    • If untreated, Trachoma can lead to irreversible blindness.

    Trachoma in India: A Historical Perspective

    • In the 1950s and 1960s, Trachoma was one of the leading causes of blindness in India.
    • To tackle this, India launched the National Trachoma Control Program in 1963.
    • Later, these efforts were integrated into India’s National Program for Control of Blindness (NPCB).
      • In 1971, the rate of blindness due to trachoma was 5% in the country.
      • Due to various interventions under the National Programme for Control of Blindness & Visual Impairment (NPCBVI), the rate has now dropped to less than 1%.

    What are the key measures taken to eliminate Trachoma?

    • India implemented the WHO SAFE strategy across the country. This strategy includes:
    1. Surgery
    2. Antibiotics
    3. Facial hygiene
    4. Environmental cleanliness
    • Although by 2017, India was declared free from infective Trachoma, it continued surveillance of Trachoma cases from 2019 to 2024.

    PYQ:

    [2018] Appropriate local community-level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve ‘Health for All’ in India. Explain.

  • What is the Marburg Virus?

    Why in the News?

    Rwanda has reported a Marburg virus outbreak with several confirmed cases and deaths, making it a country of concern for public health.

    About the Marburg Virus

    • The Marburg virus is a highly dangerous virus that causes Marburg Virus Disease (MVD), also known as Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever.
    • It belongs to the same family of viruses as Ebola (the filovirus family).
    • MVD has a case fatality rate that can range from 24% to 88%, depending on the virus strain and how cases are managed.
    • The virus was first identified in 1967 during simultaneous outbreaks in Marburg and Frankfurt in Germany.

    How does it spread?

    • The Marburg virus initially spreads from animals to humans, primarily through exposure to Rousettus bats, particularly the Egyptian fruit bat, found in caves or mines.
    • Once a person is infected, it can spread from human to human through:
      • Direct contact with the blood, and bodily fluids (urine, saliva, sweat, vomit, feces, breast milk, and semen) of an infected person.
      • Indirect contact with surfaces or objects like bedding or clothing that have been contaminated with these fluids.
      • Medical workers are often at risk, especially during outbreaks, due to contact with patients when proper infection control practices are not followed.
      • The virus does NOT spread through the air like the common cold or flu.

    Symptoms and Treatment

    • Symptoms typically begin between 2 to 21 days after exposure to the virus.
    • Early symptoms are: High fever, severe headache, Muscle aches, Chills, Severe watery diarrhoea, abdominal pain and cramping, nausea and vomiting. 
    • As the disease progresses, more severe symptoms may develop, including: Bleeding (both internal and external) ex—blood in vomit and faeces.
    • Patients often die 8 to 9 days after the onset of symptoms, primarily from severe blood loss and multiple organ failure.
    • Currently, there are no approved vaccines or specific antiviral treatments for MVD.  However, supportive care can improve the chances of survival.
    • Supportive treatment includes:
      • Rehydration with oral or intravenous fluids to maintain fluid and electrolyte balance.
      • Treatment of specific symptoms like fever, pain, and diarrhoea.
      • Blood transfusions and oxygen therapy may be required for severe cases.

    PYQ:

    [2015] Among the following, which were frequently mentioned in the news for the outbreak of Ebola virus recently?

    (a) Syria and Jordan

    (b) Guinea, Sierra Leone and Liberia

    (c) Philippines and Papua New Guinea

    (d) Jamaica, Haiti and Surinam

  • Machine Learning pioneers win Physics Nobel

    Why in the News?

    John Hopfield and Geoffrey Hinton have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, 2024 for their pioneering work that laid the foundation for machine learning and artificial neural network.

    What is Artificial Neural Network?

    • Artificial neural networks are systems inspired by the structure of the brain.
    • In these networks, nodes represent the brain’s neurons, and they influence each other through connections, similar to synapses in the brain.
    • These connections can be made stronger or weaker through training.
    • For instance, connections between nodes with high values can become stronger as the network learns.
    • Since the 1980s, Hopfield and Hinton have been conducting important research on artificial neural networks.

    Significance of their contribution

    • Hinton’s work on the Boltzmann machine and other neural networks helped drive the explosive growth of machine learning.
    • His methods continue to play a significant role in modern AI, enabling technologies like image classification and pattern recognition.

    PYQ:

    [2020] With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following?

    1 Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units

    2. Create meaningful short stories and songs

    3. Disease diagnosis

    4. Text-to-Speech Conversion

    5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only

    (b) 1, 3 and 4 only

    (c) 2, 4 and 5 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

  • [pib] Combination Therapeutic Clotting Implant

    Why in the News?

    Scientists at the Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST), Mohali, in collaboration with other researchers have developed the Combination Therapeutic Clotting Implant.

    What is the Combination Therapeutic Clotting Implant?

    • It is a hybrid implant made of metal-based nano-medicine combined with patient-derived blood clotting components.
    • It is designed to reduce localized tumor recurrence after surgery.
    • It uses nanotechnology and autologous fibrin (derived from the patient’s own blood) to enhance post-surgical cancer treatment by providing localized therapy and promoting healing in the tumor bed.

    How does It Work?

    • The implant is created using Nano-Micro-Sera (NMS), which consists of drug and metal-based nanomedicine stabilized by the patient’s own serum protein corona.
    • The hybrid implant is reinforced into autologous fibrin, which quickly bonds with damaged tissue in the tumor bed after surgery.
    • Once the surgical site is closed, the implant delivers localized chemo-phototherapy, triggering immunogenic cell death (ICD).
    • This process activates dendritic cells and T-cells, which boosts the body’s immune response and prevents the recurrence of tumors.

    Significance of the Implant

    • The implant offers an affordable and effective solution for localized post-surgical cancer management, especially for marginalized patients.
    • By using the patient’s own serum proteins and fibrin, the implant ensures personalized treatment, reducing the risk of systemic toxicity.
    • The implant’s design is resource-efficient, making it accessible for bedside fabrication with simple equipment, ensuring wider availability.
    • It has demonstrated superior outcomes in suppressing recurrent breast tumors, and its use could prevent tumor recurrence and reducing the chances of metastasis.

    PYQ:

    [2015] With reference to the use of nanotechnology in health sector, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. Targeted drug delivery is made possible by nanotechnology.

    2. Nanotechnology can largely contribute to gene therapy.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

  • Hanle Dark Sky Reserve Star Party observed in Ladakh

    Why in the News?

    Expert astro-photographers and astronomers have gathered at the Hanle Dark Sky Reserve from for the second Star Party.

    Star Party and Its Details

    • The Star Party at the Hanle Dark Sky Reserve is a gathering of amateur astronomers and astro-photographers who travel to Hanle to observe and capture celestial phenomena.
    • It was hosted by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) from and attended by over 45 astronomy enthusiasts from across India.
    • Participants brought their own telescopes and cameras to capture unique celestial events, including faint galaxies, the Zodiacal Light, and the rare sight of Venus casting a shadow.

    About Hanle Dark Sky Reserve (HDSR)

    • The HDSR is a designated area in Changthang region of eastern Ladakh created to control man-made light pollution and protect the naturally dark night skies.
    • It spans approximately 1,073 square kilometers and is home to the Indian Astronomical Observatory, operated by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA).
    • Established to promote astronomy and astrophotography, it offers some of the darkest skies in India, ideal for astronomical research.
    • Hanley is also the home to second-highest optical telescope in the world, established in 2001 by IIA.

    Special Features of HDSR and the Surrounding Region

    • High Altitude: Hanle is situated at a high altitude, providing clearer skies with minimal atmospheric interference.
    • Minimal Light Pollution: The region has low light pollution, which makes it perfect for observing faint celestial objects.
    • Dry Climate: The dry weather in the region contributes to excellent visibility, reducing the impact of humidity on astronomical observations.

    Significance of HDSR

    • Astrophotography and Research: The dark skies allow for detailed observation of celestial phenomena and astrophotography, attracting enthusiasts and researchers.
    • Astro-Tourism: The reserve fosters astro-tourism, boosting the local economy by creating jobs for guides and supporting infrastructure.
    • Preservation of Night Skies: It plays a crucial role in preserving the natural darkness of the sky, curbing light pollution in the region.
    • International Attention: The reserve has attracted amateur and professional astronomers from across India and beyond, making it a hub for astronomical events.
    PYQ:

    [2018] Consider the following phenomena:

    1. Light is affected by gravity.
    2. The Universe is constantly expanding.
    3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time.

    Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in media?

    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3