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Type: Prelims Only

  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    Who were Velu Nachiyar and Anjalai Ammal?

    31 October 2024 | Prelims Only | History
    Mains Paper 1: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Velu Nachiyar and Anjalai Ammal

    Who were Velu Nachiyar and Anjalai Ammal?

    Why in the News?

    Superstar Thalapathy Vijay launched his new party with speech highlighting his inspirations from Rani Velu Nachiyar and Anjalai Ammal.

    Contributions of Velu Nachiyar (1730-1796)

    • Born in 1730 to King Chellamuthu Sethupathy and Queen Sakandhimuthal of the Ramnad kingdom (now Tamil Nadu).
    • Trained in horse riding, archery, kalaripayattu, and silambam (South Indian martial arts).
    • Educated as a polyglot, fluent in Tamil, Urdu, English, and French, with a strong grasp of military strategy.
    • Married Muthu Vaduganatha Periyavudaya Thevar in 1746, supporting him as Queen of Sivagangai.
    • In 1772, Sivagangai was invaded by the British East India Company in alliance with the Nawab of Arcot; her husband was killed in battle.
    • Fled with her daughter Vellachi to Dindigul under the protection of Hyder Ali of Mysore.
    • Formed alliances with Hyder Ali and Gopala Naicker of the Marudu brothers to reclaim her kingdom.
    • Successfully fought against the British and reclaimed Sivagangai in 1780.
    • Ruled for a decade before passing the throne to her daughter in 1790.
    • Known as Tamil Nadu’s ‘Veeramangai’ (Brave Lady) and celebrated as an early Indian queen who resisted British colonialism.

    Significant role played by Anjalai Ammal (1890-1961)

    • Born in 1890 in Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu, to a weaver family.
    • Married Murugappan in 1908, and both joined the freedom struggle inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s principles.
    • Became active in the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1921, marking the beginning of her political involvement.
    • Played a significant role in:
      • Neil Statue Satyagraha, protesting a statue of Colonel James Neil.
      • Salt Satyagraha in 1930 and the Quit India Movement in 1942.
    • Served as President of the All India Women’s Congress in Madras in 1931.
    • Arrested multiple times for her activism; gave birth to her youngest son while serving a six-month prison term.
    • Prevented by the British from meeting Gandhi in 1934; met him in disguise, and he called her “South India’s Rani of Jhansi”.
    • First woman elected to the Madras legislature as a Congress representative.
    • Remained politically active until her death in 1961, remembered as a pioneer for women’s rights and freedom.

    PYQ:

    [2016] Discuss the role of women in the freedom struggle especially during the Gandhian phase.

    [2015] Consider the following statements:

    1. The first woman President of the Indian National Congress was Sarojini Naidu.

    2. The first Muslim President of the Indian National Congress was Badruddin Tyabji.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    What is DANA?

    31 October 2024 | Prelims Only | Environment
    Mains Paper 1: GS1-15.Geographical features and their location- Changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: DANA

    Why in the News?

    The extreme conditions in eastern Spain which saw Valencia get a year’s worth of rain in just 8 hours can be blamed on an event locally known as Depresion Aislada en Niveles Altos (DANA).

    What is DANA?

    • Depresion Aislada en Niveles Altos (DANA), is commonly referred to as the “cold drop” in English.
    • It is a meteorological phenomenon in the western Mediterranean region that brings intense rainfall and flooding.
    • The term “DANA” was coined by Spanish meteorologists to specifically describe this weather phenomenon.

    Features and Location:

    • DANA occurs when cold air from the Polar Regions separates from the polar jet stream and descends over the warmer Mediterranean Sea.
    • The contrast between cold air aloft and warm, moist air near the surface causes atmospheric instability, leading to the rapid formation of cumulonimbus clouds and intense thunderstorms.
    • It primarily affects Spain and Portugal but can also impact Italy, France, and other areas around the Mediterranean Sea.
    • This occurs in autumn and spring, as temperature variations are more pronounced during these seasons.

    PYQ:

    [2014] The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of:

    (a) Equatorial climate

    (b) Mediterranean climate

    (c) Monsoon climate

    (d) All of the above climates

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    [pib] Four replicas of Konark Wheels at Rashtrapati Bhavan

    30 October 2024 | Prelims Only | History
    Mains Paper 1: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Konark Wheels, Sun Temple, Kalinga Architecture

    konark
    PC: konark.in

    Why in the News?

    Four replicas of the Konark wheels, made of sandstone, have been installed at Rashtrapati Bhavan Cultural Centre and Amrit Udyan. 

    About Konark Wheels

    Details
    Design The temple is designed in the shape of a huge chariot drawn by 7 horses and features 24 wheels.
    Dimensions of Wheels Each wheel has a diameter of 9 feet 9 inches with 8 wider spokes and 8 thinner spokes.
    Symbolism of Wheels The wheels represent various time-related aspects:
    • 7 horses symbolize the days of the week.
    • 12 pairs of wheels signify 12 months.
    • 24 wheels represent 24 hours in a day.
    • 8 spokes symbolize prahars (three-hour periods).
    Architectural Features • The wheels are intricately carved, showcasing designs of foliage, animals, and figures of women in various poses.
    • Rims of the wheels have decorative carvings.
    Sun Dial Functionality Two of the wheels function as a sundial, accurately indicating time from sunrise to sunset using the shadow cast by the axel.
    Modern Representation
    • Featured in Indian currency, specifically in the old Rs. 20 and new Rs. 10 notes, representing Odisha’s rich cultural heritage.
    • Rs. 10 note released by the RBI on January 5, 2018, features the Konark Wheel on its reverse side.

    Its significance

    • The Konark Wheel, serving as an ancient sundial, symbolizes the advanced understanding of timekeeping and astronomy in 13th-century India.
    • Its intricate carvings reflect exceptional craftsmanship and cultural significance, embodying the cycle of life and the worship of Surya, the Sun God.
    • Its depiction on Indian currency highlights its enduring legacy and significance in promoting national identity and tourism in Odisha.

    Back2Basics: Konark Sun Temple

    konark

    • Approximately 64 km from Bhubaneswar.
    • Built in the 13th century (around 1250 CE) during the reign of King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.
    • Dedicated to Surya, the Sun God.
    • Exemplifies Kalinga architecture, known for its intricate stone carvings and elaborate sculptures.
    • Constructed from Khondalite stone, which is durable and intricately carved.
    • Designed as a chariot with 7 horses and 24 wheels.
    • Structure originally included a sanctum (deul) and a jagamohan (assembly hall) that have largely collapsed but were once adorned with exquisite carvings.

     

    PYQ:

    [2017] Which of the following is/are famous for Sun temples?

    1. Arasavalli

    2. Amarakantak

    3. Omkareshwar

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Languages and Eighth Schedule

    Maithili missed out on Classical Status

    30 October 2024 | Prelims Only | History
    Mains Paper 1: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Maithili; Eighth Schedule

    Why in the News?

    While five languages were granted classical status earlier this month, Maithili was not considered as the Bihar government had not officially forwarded the proposal, despite ongoing demands for its inclusion.

    Maithili missed out on Classical Status

    About Maithili Language

    • Maithili belongs to the eastern sub-group of the Indo-Aryan branch of languages.
      • It is believed to have evolved from Magadhan Prakrit.
      • The poet Vidyapati (14th century) popularized Maithili, establishing its importance in literature and folk culture.
    • It was added to the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution in 2003, making it one of the 22 officially recognized languages of India.
      • It is an optional subject in the UPSC exams, providing an opportunity for candidates to take it as a paper.
      • It was granted second official language status in Jharkhand in 2018.
    • It is spoken primarily in Bihar and Jharkhand in India, with a significant presence in Nepal.
      • According to the 2011 Census, there are around 12 million Maithili speakers in India.
      • It is the second most spoken language in Nepal, especially in the Terai region.
    • Mithilakshar, also known as Tirhuta, is the original script used for writing Maithili.
      • It belongs to the same family as Bangla, Assamese, Odia, Tibetan, and Nepali scripts.
      • The script’s oldest records date back to 950 AD, found in Sahodara stone inscriptions.

    About Eighth Schedule:

    Details
    Purpose Lists the official languages of India as recognized by the Constitution.
    Relevant Articles Part XVII (Articles 343 to 351) of the Constitution outlines provisions for official languages.
    Key Constitutional Provisions • Article 344(1): Mandates the formation of a Commission by the President to recommend steps to promote Hindi after five years of the Constitution’s commencement.
    • Article 351: Promotes the development of Hindi as a medium to represent India’s composite culture.
    Languages in the Eighth Schedule Currently includes 22 languages:
    Initially Included (14 languages): Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu.
    Later Additions: Sindhi (21st Amendment, 1967), Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali (71st Amendment, 1992), Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali (92nd Amendment, 2003).
    Official Language Status Hindi (in Devanagari script) is the official language of India, with English as an additional official language for administrative purposes.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Consider the following languages:

    1. Gujarati
    2. Kannada
    3. Telugu

    Which of the above has/have been declared as ‘Classical Language/Languages’ by the Government?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • The Crisis In The Middle East

    United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA)

    30 October 2024 | Prelims Only | International Relations
    Mains Paper 2: GS2-20.Important International institutions, agencies and fora- their structure, mandate.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA)

    Why in the News?

    Israel’s Knesset has banned the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) from operating within its borders, citing alleged ties between UNRWA staff and Hamas.

    What is Israel’s Knesset?

    • The Knesset is Israel’s unicameral parliament, established in 1949.
    • It consists of 120 members, elected every four years through proportional representation, and is responsible for legislation, government oversight, and electing the president.

    About UNRWA:

    Details
    Full Name United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)
    Establishment Established by the UN General Assembly in 1949.
    Primary Purpose To provide relief, healthcare, and education for Palestinian refugees displaced after the 1948 Arab-Israeli war.
    Headquarters Originally in Beirut, moved to Vienna in 1978, and relocated to Gaza in 1996.
    Mandate Renewal The mandate has been renewed repeatedly, currently extended until June 30, 2026.
    Fields of Operation Operates in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Gaza, and the West Bank, including East Jerusalem.
    Beneficiaries Supports over five million Palestinian refugees and their descendants displaced in 1948 and 1967.
    Services Provided • Education
    • Healthcare
    • Social services
    • Infrastructure improvement
    • Microfinance
    • Emergency assistance
    Funding Sources Primarily funded by voluntary contributions from UN member states, with limited funding from the UN Regular Budget for staffing costs.
    Leadership Led by a Commissioner-General, appointed by the UN Secretary-General with General Assembly approval.
    Controversies • Disputed mandate regarding descendants of original refugees.
    • Allegations of staff affiliations with militant groups.
    Global Response Condemned by the international community regarding bans and criticisms, with calls to support UNRWA’s humanitarian role.

    Its role and significance:

    • Humanitarian Aid: UNRWA provides essential support, including food, shelter, healthcare, and education to over five million Palestinian refugees.
    • Education and Empowerment: Operates schools for 500,000 children and supports microfinance programs to promote economic self-sufficiency.
    • Crisis Response: Plays a vital role in emergency situations and advocates for the rights of Palestinian refugees on an international level.

    PYQ:

    [2015] Amnesty International is:

    (a) an agency of the United Nations to help refugees of civil wars

    (b) a global Human Rights Movement

    (c) a non-governmental voluntary organization to help very poor people

    (d) an inter-governmental agency to cater to medical emergencies in war-ravaged regions

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  • Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

    TN declares Heatwaves a State-specific Disaster

    30 October 2024 | Prelims Only | Environment
    Mains Paper 3: GS3-19.Disaster and Disaster Management.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Heatwaves, State-specific Disasters

    Why in the News?

    • The Tamil Nadu government has officially declared heatwaves a State-specific disaster.
      • It announced an ex-gratia payment of ₹4 lakh for families of individuals who die from heat-related causes, including those involved in relief operations.

    Key Details of the Declaration

    • Purpose: This declaration allows the government to provide immediate relief to those affected by extreme heat, especially during the severe temperatures of April and May 2024.
    • Funding: Relief efforts will be supported by the State Disaster Response Fund.
    • Other State-specific disasters in TN: Sea erosion, lightning, thunder, whirlwinds, and gale winds as State-specific disasters to ensure relief assistance for those impacted by these events.

    Note: 

    • Kerala in March this year, declared man-animal conflict as a state-specific disaster, becoming the first state in the country to do so.
    • Once an issue is declared a state-specific disaster, the onus to deal with it shifts to the state disaster management authority, which, powered by the Disaster Management Act, can take quicker and more decisive action.
    • Also, district collectors can directly intervene in their capacity as the chairman of the district disaster body.

     

    heatwave

    About Heatwaves:

    Details
    Definition A heatwave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather, relative to the usual climate of a region.
    Occurrence Typically occurs in India between March and June.
    Declaration by IMD
    • Plains: The maximum temperature is at least 45°C
    • Hills: The maximum temperature is at least 30°C
    • Coastal regions: The maximum temperature is at least 37°C and the departure from normal is at least 4.5°C
    Formation • High-Pressure Systems: Develop when high pressure settles over a region for days or weeks.
    • Air Sinking: Forces air to sink, warming and drying it.
    • Increased Radiation: Fewer clouds lead to higher surface temperatures.
    • Surface Winds: Warm air from lower latitudes or continental winds intensify heat.
    Criteria for Declaring a Heatwave At least two stations in a meteorological subdivision must meet one of the following criteria for two consecutive days (declared on the second day):
    Based on Departure from Normal:
    – Heat Wave: Temperature departure of 4.5°C to 6.4°C above normal.
    – Severe Heat Wave: Temperature departure of >6.4°C above normal.
    Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (plains only):
    – Heat Wave: Maximum temperature reaches 45°C or higher.
    – Severe Heat Wave: Maximum temperature reaches 47°C or higher.
    Duration Typically lasts a minimum of four days but can extend to seven or ten days.
    Longest Recorded Spell: May 2015, lasting from 18 to 31 May.
    Impact of Heatwaves • Heat Strokes: Increased risk, especially for the elderly and those with chronic illnesses.
    • Increased Healthcare Costs: Higher hospital visits and death rates from related illnesses.
    • Reduced Productivity: Extreme heat affects the output of over 1 billion workers.
    • Risk of Wildfires: Heat domes can lead to wildfires.
    • Effect on Vegetation: Prolonged heat damages crops and leads to droughts.
    • Increased Energy Demands: Higher electricity usage for cooling, driving up rates.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Bring out the causes for the formation of heat islands in the urban habitat of the world.

    [2013] The annual range of temperature in the interior of the continents is high as compared to coastal areas. What is / are the reason / reasons?

    1. Thermal difference between land and water

    2. Variation in altitude between continents and oceans

    3. Presence of strong winds in the interior

    4. Heavy rains in the interior as compared to coasts

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 1 and 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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  • AYUSH – Indian Medicine System

    9th National Ayurveda Day

    29 October 2024 | Prelims Only | History
    Mains Paper 1: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: 9th National Ayurveda Day

    Why in the News?

    • On the occasion of the 9th Ayurveda Day, Prime Minister will launch several healthcare projects valued at Rs 12,850 crore.
      • The focal theme for Ayurveda day-2024 has been decided as ‘Ayurveda Innovations for Global Health’.

    About Ayurveda:

    Details
    Origins   • Rooted in four Vedas (5000–1000 BCE).
    • References in Ramayana and Mahabharata epics.
    • Fully developed by 1000 BCE with Charaka Samhita and Susruta Samhita.
    Foundational Texts   • Brhattrayi (Three Major Treatises):
    • Caraka Samhita (internal medicine)
    • Susruta Samhita (surgery)
    • Astanga Sangraha and Astanga Hrdaya (Vrddha Vagbhata and Vagbhata, 6th-7th century CE).
    • Takshashila and Nalanda universities attracted foreign students.
    Global Influence • Spread through Buddhism to Tibetan and Chinese medicine.
    • Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans adopted concepts via trade and interactions.
    • 8th century CE saw Nagarjuna study medicinal use of metals.
    Integration of Modern Techniques • 16th century saw inclusion of modern diagnostics and treatment for new diseases.
    Revival in India (19th-20th Cent.) • 1827: First Ayurveda course at Government Sanskrit College, Calcutta.
    • 20th Century: Ayurveda colleges spread under regional patronage.
    • 1970s: Ayurveda revived, with academic research, publications, and global symposia.
    Current Status   • Structured undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral education.
    • Strong network of practitioners and manufacturers.
    • Developed infrastructure for community outreach.
    Global Influence  24 countries recognize Ayurveda legally.
    Collaborative platforms include:
    • SCO Expert Working Group on Traditional Medicine
    • BIMSTEC Taskforce on Traditional Medicine
    • BRICS High-Level Forum on Traditional Medicine.
    • Ayurveda products exported to 100+ countries.
    WHO Standards and Milestones • ICD-11 Integration: WHO included Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani in ICD-11 TM Module 2.
    • WHO set global standards for practice and training.
    • GCTM, Jamnagar (Gujarat): Focuses on Ayurveda research, education, and practice.
    Philosophical Foundations • Historical evidence dates to the first millennium BCE.
    • Knowledge passed from gods to sages and then to human physicians.
    • Central concepts align with Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Buddhism, and Jainism.
    • Emphasis on balance and maintaining natural urges.

    Initiatives and Programs by the Govt.

    • National Ayush Mission (2014): Aimed at promoting the development and growth of Ayush systems (Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and Homeopathy) in the country, focusing on strengthening educational institutions and enhancing the quality of services.
    • Ayurveda Research Portal (2021): Promotes research in Ayurveda by providing a digital platform for researchers, practitioners, and institutions to access data, funding opportunities, and collaborative initiatives.
    • Ayush Grid (2020): A digital initiative aimed at enhancing the accessibility of Ayush services and information through online platforms, connecting practitioners, patients, and educational institutions.

    PYQ:

    [2019] How is the Government of India protecting traditional knowledge of medicine from patenting by pharmaceutical companies?

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  • Tiger Conservation Efforts – Project Tiger, etc.

    Similipal Tiger Reserve

    29 October 2024 | Prelims Only | Environment
    Mains Paper 3: GS3-18.Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Similipal Tiger Reserve

    Why in the News?

    The Odisha government has translocated a female tiger from Maharashtra’s Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve to Similipal Tiger Reserve, the State’s largest, to enhance the genetic diversity of its tiger population.

    Similipal Tiger Reserve

    Why discuss this?

    • The All Odisha Tiger Estimation (AOTE-2023-24) says a total of 30 tigers were found in Odisha. Similipal has 27 of them.
    • A total of 13 adult tigers (seven females and six males) were found to be pseudo-melanistic in Similipal, and no other wild habitat in the world has pseudo-melanistic tigers.
      • Research indicates that a single mutation in the Transmembrane Aminopeptidase Q (Taqpep) gene causes Similipal’s black tigers to develop distinctive striped patterns.

    About Simlipal Tiger Reserve (STR):

    Details
    Location Located in the Mayurbhanj District, Northernmost part of Odisha, surrounded by high plateaus and hills.
    Highest Peak Twin peaks of Khairiburu and Meghashini, at 1515 meters above mean sea level.
    Designation Declared a Tiger Reserve in 1956; included in the Project Tiger national conservation program in 1973.
    UNESCO Recognition Included as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves by UNESCO in 2009.
    Terrain Mostly undulating and hilly, interspersed with open grasslands and wooded areas.
    Vegetation A mix of different forest types, predominantly Northern tropical moist deciduous and semi-evergreen patches.
    Tribal Communities Inhabited by various tribes including Kolha, Santhala, Bhumija, Bhatudi, Gondas, Khadia, Mankadia, and Sahara.
    Flora Home to 1078 species of plants, including 94 species of orchids, with Sal being the dominant tree species.
    Fauna Diverse wildlife including Leopard, Gaur, Elephant, Langur, Barking and Spotted Deer, Sloth Bear, Mongoose, Flying Squirrel, Porcupine, Turtle, Monitor Lizard, Python, Sambar, Pangolin, etc.

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?

    (a) Corbett

    (b) Ranthambore

    (c) Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam

    (d) Sunderbans

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    [pib] Raigad Fort

    29 October 2024 | Prelims Only | History
    Mains Paper 1: GS1-01.Indian Culture- Salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to modern times.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Raigad Fort

    [pib] Raigad Fort

    Why in the News?

    The Raigad Fort is among 12 forts nominated for UNESCO World Heritage status under the title “Maratha Military Landscapes of India.”

    Why Raigad Fort is Nominated for UNESCO World Heritage?

    • Historical and Strategic Importance: Raigad Fort served as the capital of the Maratha Empire under Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, symbolizing Maratha resilience and independence.
    • Architectural Excellence: The fort showcases Maratha military architecture, with well-developed structures adapted to the hilly terrain.
    • Role in Maratha Legacy: As a hill fort, Raigad is emblematic of the Marathas’ unique fortification style, designed to withstand invasions and safeguard autonomy.
    • Icon of Maratha Heritage: Known as Durgaraj (King of Forts), Raigad stands as a tribute to Shivaji Maharaj’s leadership and legacy and has become a pilgrimage site for Shivbhakts.
    • Natural Defense and Innovation: The fort’s natural fortifications, steep escarpments, and strategic location atop an isolated hill embody military ingenuity and make it a model of Maratha defense architecture.

    History of Raigad Fort:

    Details
    Location   • Situated in the Sahyadri mountain range in Maharashtra, India.
    • Elevation of approximately 2,700 feet above sea level.
    • Surrounded by natural cliffs and 1,500-foot escarpments.
    Background • Originally known as Rairi.
    • Captured by Shivaji Maharaj in 1653 CE.
    • Crowned Chhatrapati on June 6, 1674 CE.
    • Served as the capital of the Maratha Empire until 1680 CE.
    Significance • Part of the “Maratha Military Landscapes of India” nomination for UNESCO World Heritage status.
    • Referred to as the “Gibraltar of the East” by Grant Duff.
    Architectural Highlights • Includes the Royal Complex with key structures like Ranivasa and Rajsadar.
    • Jagadishwar Mandir dedicated to Lord Shiva.
    • Samadhi (final resting place) of Shivaji Maharaj located nearby.
    Features • Accessible mainly through Naqqarkhana and Palkhi Darwaja.
    • Features well-designed drainage systems and secret chambers.
    Ecology • Surrounded by valleys shaped by the Kal and Gandhari rivers.
    • Supported limited agriculture and had a self-sustained ecosystem.
    Cultural Significance • Known as the Durgaraj (King of Forts), symbolizing Shivaji Maharaj’s legacy.
    • Hosts annual celebrations for Shivrajyabhishek and Punyatithi.

     

    PYQ:

    [2010] What was the immediate reason for Ahmad Shah Abdali to invade India and fight the Third Battle of Panipat?

    (a) He wanted to avenge the expulsion by Marathas of his viceroy Timur Shah from Lahore

    (b) The frustrated governor of Jullundhar Adina Beg Khan invited him to invade Punjab

    (c) He wanted to punish Mughal administration for non-payment of the revenues of the Chahar Mahal (Gujarat, Aurangabad, Sialkot & Pasrur)

    (d) He wanted to annex all the fertile plains of Punjab up to the borders of Delhi to his kingdom

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    2024 Global Nature Conservation Index

    29 October 2024 | Prelims Only | Environment
    Mains Paper 3: GS3-18.Conservation, Environmental Pollution and Degradation, Environmental Impact Assessment.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Nature Conservation Index

    Why in the News?

    India has been ranked 176th in the Global Nature Conservation Index (NCI) 2024 with a score of 45.5 out of 100, placing it among the five worst performers alongside Kiribati (180), Turkey (179), Iraq (178), and Micronesia (177).

    Reasons for India’s Low Ranking:

    • High Rate of Land Conversion: 53% of India’s land is converted for urban, industrial, and agricultural purposes, contributing to deforestation and habitat fragmentation that severely impact biodiversity.
    • Soil Pollution: India’s sustainable nitrogen index is 0.77, indicating high levels of soil pollution primarily due to extensive pesticide use, threatening soil health and agricultural sustainability.
    • Minimal Marine Conservation: Only 0.2% of India’s national waterways are protected, with no protected areas in its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), highlighting limited efforts in marine biodiversity conservation.
    • Illegal Wildlife Trade: India ranks as the fourth-largest illegal wildlife trader globally, with an estimated annual trade value of ÂŁ15 billion, putting added pressure on vulnerable wildlife species.

    About the Nature Conservation Index (NCI):

    Details
    Developed By Goldman Sonnenfeldt School of Sustainability and Climate Change at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.
    Purpose To assess each country’s progress in balancing conservation and development through data-driven analysis.
    Aim To help governments, researchers, and organizations identify concerns and enhance conservation policies for long-term biodiversity protection.
    Launch Date Launched on October 24, 2024.
    Scope Ranks 180 countries based on their conservation efforts.
    Pillars of the Index • Managing Protected Areas
    • Addressing Threats Against Biodiversity
    • Nature and Conservation Governance
    • Future Trends in Natural Resource Management
    Significance Provides insights into conservation policies and practices, aiding in the global effort to protect biodiversity and promote sustainable development.

    Key highlights of the reports:

    • Finland, Norway, Switzerland, Costa Rica, and New Zealand ranked highest, showing strong conservation practices and governance.
    • Nations with advanced climate adaptation policies (e.g., Sweden and Denmark) are better positioned to mitigate biodiversity risks from climate change.
    • Despite Protected Areas, 46.9% of terrestrial and 67.5% of marine species are in decline worldwide.
    • High-density nations such as Bangladesh and the Netherlands face intense biodiversity pressures, driving them to implement urban greening and sustainable practices.

    PYQ:

    [2018] “Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now” is an initiative launched by:

    (a) The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

    (b) The UNEP Secretariat

    (c) The UNFCCC Secretariat

    (d) The World Meteorological Organisation

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