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IMD had predicted normal monsoon for 2021. However, initial estimates show that some states may not get enough rain.

In this article, we shall learn how this will impact economic growth, especially when other sectors are still reeling under Covid-19 impact.

What is Monsoon?

• Monsoon is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation.
• It is now being used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscillation of the Intertropical Convergence Zone between its limits to the north and south of the equator.
• Usually, the term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although technically there is also a dry phase.
• The term is also sometimes used to describe locally heavy but short-term rains.

What defines a Normal Monsoon?

The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) calls a monsoon season:

• ‘Normal’ when the total amount of rainfall in the country between June and September is within 10 per cent (plus or minus) of the average rain over a long period.
• ‘Deficit rainfall’ is when it drops below the margin of 10 per cent of the average.
• ‘Excess rainfall’ is when it exceeds the average by more than 10 per cent.

What is the LPA method?

• The IMD uses long period average (LPA) method to forecast the monsoon.
• LPA represents the average annual rainfall received by India during the southwest monsoon over the five decades from 1961 to 2010.

Why is it so important to have Normal Monsoon?

A good monsoon usually brings renewal and recovery, especially when times are grim. The right amount of rainfall brings the promise of a bumper harvest, boosting rural incomes and demand, driving an essential economic cycle.

(1) Crop success

• The monsoon is critical for agriculture in the country since nearly 60% of India’s net arable land lacks irrigation.
• The monsoon delivers about 70% of India’s annual rainfall and determines the yield of several grains and pulses, including rice, wheat, and sugarcane.
• India is the world’s biggest producer of sugar, cotton and pulses, and the second-biggest producer of wheat and rice. 

(2) Food inflation

• More importantly, higher agriculture yield would mean lower pressure on food prices and the overall retail inflation.
• A normal south-west monsoon should help to contain food price pressures, especially in cereals and pulses.
• It is also crucial to keep up the rural demand.

(3) Drinking water

• The rains also replenish nearly 100 large reservoirs critical for drinking water and power generation across the country.
• In the event of deficient rains, cities such as Chennai, Mumbai, and Hyderabad will be forced to cut water supplies.

(4) Demand spur in the economy

• Most major sectors of the economy like to base their sales and distribution activities on the monsoon’s behavior.
• For example, if the monsoon fails, lower production of foodgrain would mean lower demand for diesel to transport goods.
• A company involved in sales and distribution of automotive fuels would like to cut down production before the demand plummets.
• From share markets and betting houses to the collections at temples and sales of vegetables, the monsoon affects everything.

(5) Hydro Energy

• A normal monsoon will also lead to reservoirs across India, which are responsible for water supply in cities, filling up.
• Thus it  will also lead to an increase in production of hydro power which is a cleaner form of energy.

Importance of Monsoon for the Agriculture

• When the first wave of Covid-19 cases ravaged the economy in 2020, it was the agriculture sector, powered by an above-average monsoon, that saved the economy and millions who depend on agriculture, both directly and indirectly.
• Nearly half of India’s farmland has no irrigation and is dependent on monsoon rains, which account for 70-90 per cent of annual rainfall.
• Farming accounts for almost 15 per cent of India’s GDP and employs nearly 42.6 per cent of the workforce.
• While the share of Indians employed in the sector is declining, it remains a critical sector.

Public sentiments associated

• Normal monsoon will also improve the sentiment in rural India which has witnessed many coronavirus cases and deaths.
• It will lead to an increase in income of farmers and provide a boost to rural demand which has been facing pressure in the second wave.

Significance for post COVID recovery

• A normal monsoon would ensure that inflation remains in the band of 4%-6% as targeted by the Reserve Bank of India.
• Low inflation will help the Reserve Bank of India to continue with its stance of keeping interest rates low. Generally, central banks resort to an increase in interest rates to tackle high inflation.
• Low rate scenario is required at a time when Indian economy is battling from the economic fallout of the pandemic.

Issues in Monsoon Prediction

• One may complain about the “unreliability and uncertainty of rainfall prediction in India.
• In recent times, the unpredictability of monsoons has increased significantly with the impact of global warming that has resulted in climate change all over the world.
• For climate scientists, determining the location, extent, and intensity of the ITCZ is the biggest challenge and in recent times it has become more difficult due to climate change and other factors like El Nino, a global climate cycle that disrupts the path of trade winds.

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Indian Festivals

Kumbha Mela	Held at all 4 places every 3 years by rotation (Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, Ujjain) Associated rivers : Ganga at Haridwar, the Sangam of the Ganga, Yamuna and the mythical Saraswati at Allahabad,  Godawari at Nashik, and Shipra at Ujjain Ardha Kumbh Mela  : Haridwar and Prayag every 6 years Purna Kumbh Mela  : Prayag every 12 years Maha Kumbh Mela  : Prayag every 144 years
Holi	last full moon day of  Phalguna
Maha Shivaratri	13th night in Krishna Paksha of Phalguna
Navaratri	9 forms of Shakti are worshipped on 9 nights
Vinayaga Chaturthi	On occasion of birth of Ganesha
Vasant Panchami	Worshiping Saraswati –  the goddess of knowledge, music and art Children are taught to write their first words; Brahmins are fed ; ancestral worship is performed; the god of love- Kamadeva is worshipped People usually wear yellow garments
Ramzan	Muslims refrain from eating, drinking and sexual relations from dawn until sunset Intended to teach Muslims about patience, humility & spirituality
Guru Purnima	Buddhists in the honour of Lord Buddha who gave his first sermon on this day at Sarnath Hindus on this day offer Puja or pay respect to their Guru
Buddha Poornima	Birth anniversary of Lord Buddha
Christmas	Commemorate the birth of Jesus
Easter	Oldest and holiest Christian festival – the day when Jesus Christ was crucified On this day Jesus Christ rose from the dead and ascended into heaven
Thai Pongal	Harvest festival celebrated in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and Sri Lanka To thank the Sun God and farmstead livestock Boiling of milk in clay pot symbolize material abundance for household
Muharram	Celebrated on the 1st  month of the Islamic calendar unlawful to fight during this month
Dree Festival	an agricultural rite, which is observed by Apatanis in Arunachal Pradesh involves a sacrifice of fowls, eggs and animals to the sun & moon god to appease these Gods to avoid feminine

Indian Dances

Indian Folk Music

• Baul : It is a type of Bengali music and a religious sect. The lyrics carry influence from Bhakti movement as well as Sufi movement.
• Wanawan : Folk music from Kashmir which is sung during wedding ceremonies.
• Padwani : This music is based on Mahabharata and uses both singing and playing instruments.
• Alha : Song is from Madhya Pradesh and is a heroic ballad song.
• Paani hari : Song is from the state of Rajasthan and is thematically related to water. Songs are generally about women fetching water from nearby well.
• Ovi : Maharashtra and Goan women sing such songs during leisure time.
• Pai song : Songs are mostly from Madhya Pradesh sung during festivals.
• Lavani : Popular folk song from Maharashtra. Music has a powerful rhythm and beats and is suitable for dancing.
• Maand : Developed in the royal circles
• Dandiya raas : Performed in Gujarat and is associated with Holi and Lila of Krishna and Radha at Vrindavan
• Powada : Folk type emerging from Maharashtra
• Khongjom Parva : Important folk music from the state of Manipur.
• Bhagwati : Popular amongst masses of Karnataka and Maharashtra. Musically they are close to ghazals and are sung on a slower pitch.

Classical Dances

The classical dance forms recognised by the Sangeet Natak Akademi and the Ministry of Culture are

• Bharatanatyam, from Tamil Nadu
• Kathak, from Uttar Pradesh and western India
• Kathakali, from Kerala
• Kuchipudi, from Andhra Pradesh
• Odissi, from Odisha
• Sattriya, from Assam
• Manipuri, from Manipur
• Mohiniyattam, from Kerala

Indian Music

The two main traditions of classical music in India are Carnatic music and Hindustani Music. Carnatic Music is found predominantly in the peninsular regions and Hindustani music are found in the northern and central regions.

Hindustani Music

Hindustani music was not only influenced by ancient Hindu musical traditions but also enriched by the Persian performance practices of the Mughals.

Dhrupad is an old style of Hindustani singing, traditionally performed by male singers. The great Indian musician Tansen sang in the Dhrupad style. Dhrupad was the main form of northern Indian classical music but has now given way to Khyal.

Khyal is a form of vocal music in Hindustani music. It was adopted from medieval Persian music It is special as it is based on improvising and expressing emotion.

Another vocal form Tarana are medium to fast-paced songs that are usually performed towards the end of the concert. They consist of a few lines of poetry with rhythmic syllables.

Tappa is a form of Indian semi-classical vocal music. It originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and was developed as a form of classical music by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori.

Thumri is a semi-classical vocal form said to have begun in Uttar Pradesh. The lyrics are typically in Brij Bhasha and are usually romantic.

Ghazal is an originally Persian form of Poetry. In India, Ghazal became the most common form of poetry in the  Urdu language.

Although Hindustani music clearly is focused on vocal performance, recently instrumental Hindustani music is very popular than vocal music especially outside South Asia.

Carnatic Music

Carnatic music is a system of music commonly associated with the southern part of  India especially. Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Carnatic music is completely melodic with improvised variations. Purandara Dasa is credited with having founded today’s Carnatic music. He is credited with having elevated Carnatic music from religious and devotional music into the realm of performing art. Carnatic music is usually performed by a small ensemble of musicians consist ing of a principal performer (vocalist ) a violin, mridanga ,and a tamburu. Today Carnatic music is presented by musicians in concerts or recordings either vocally or through instruments.

Important Indian Crafts

ZARI

•  Zari is an even thread traditionally made offine gold or silver used in traditional Indian, Pakistani and Persian garments and curtains, etc. Four types of zari are produced in India, namely, real zari, semi real zari, imitation zari and plastic zari.
•  Real zari is made of silver and electroplated with gold, whereas semi real zari has a composition of copper coated with silver and gold electroplating. Surat is the home of zari industry in India. Other clusters producing zari are Bareilly, Varanasi, Agra, Hyderabad, Lucknow, Vadodara, Lathur, Jaipur, Barmer, etc.

Coir Twisting

•  Coir is a natural, eco-friendly, waterproof and exceptionally tensile fibre extracted from the nuts of coconut palms.
•  It is found in abundance and is used for manufacturing a wide range of eco-friendly toys, mats, brushes, mattresses, wall hangings, key rings, pen stands and other home decoratives.
•  This craft is primarily produced in Odisha (Sakhigopal, Puri, Pipli, Bhubaneswar, Batamangala and Kendrapara). It is also produced in Kerala (Ernakulam).

Folk Painting

•  Indian folk paintings are pictorial expressions of village painters which are marked by the subjects chosen from epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata, Indian Puranas as well as daily events. There are several vibrant folk painting types in India in different stages.
•  The Gond tribe of Madhya Pradesh is engaged in floor and wall painting. Warli is a vivid expression of daily and social events of Warli tribe in Maharashtra. Rajasthan is famous for Phad painting done on cloth.
•  Other types of paintings arc Pilhora painting in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, Madhubani painting of Bihar, Chitrakar painting of West Bengal, Patachitras in Odisha, and Kalamkar Srikalahasti, Andhra Pradesh.

Metal Ware

•  The metal crafts of India display intricate craftsmanship and fine art in shaping gold, silver, brass, copper into exquisitely designed images, idols, jewellery, and utility items. Different categories of handicrafts that come under metal ware are brass metalware of Moradabad, metal bidri work and bell metal in Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and so on.
•  India is the largest brassware producer in the world. Major clusters of brassware are Moradabad, Murshidabad, Madurai, Salem, Cuttack and Haryana.
•  Bidriware is a metal handicraft that originatedinBidar, Karnataka. The term
  ‘Bidriware’ originates from the township of Bidar, which is still the main centre of the unique metalware. It is a form of encrusted metalware, where one metal is inlaid on to another.
•  Bidri products include a diverse range of objects including hukka bases, bowls, boxes, candle stands, trays, jewellery and buttons. It travelled from Iran to Ajmer in Rajasthan in the 13th century AD, and from there to Bijapur and flourished during the reign of the Deccan Sultanate.Itis also practised in Aurangabad district in the state of Maharashtra and Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh. The basic metal used for Bidri is the alloy of zinc and copper.

Filigree and Silverware

•  Filigree is an extremely ancient technique dating back to 4000 years ago. Filigree work is performed on silver and involves significant precision and technicality. Two major clusters of silver filigree in India are Karimnagar in Andhra Pradesh and Cuttack in Odisha.
•  The practice in Karimnagar is about two centuries old. However, it is also practised in Warangal in Andhra Pradesh. Key raw materials used are silver wire, tracing sheet, copper, charcoal, dilute sulphuric acid.

Textile Hand Embroidery

•  In textile hand embroidery, embellishment is made on fabric with threads and sometimes with other materials.
•  There are many popular embroidery clusters such as chikankari and zardozi of Lucknow, katha of Bengal pulkari of Punjab. kutchi embroidery of Gujarat and kashidakari of Kashmir. Zardozi has been traditionally prevalent in Lucknow and the six surrounding districts ofBarabanki, Unnao, Sitapur, Rae Bareli, Hardoi and Amethi.

Textile Hand Printing

•  Hand-printed textiles is a craft in which cloth is dyed with hand or printed using shapes. Various types of hand printing practiced in India are block printing, batik, kalamkari (hand printing by pen) and bandhani (tie and die).
•  Some of the important centres of this craft are in Hyderabad, Machalipattnam, Varanasi, Farrukabad, Bagh, Behrongarh, Indore, Mandsar, Burhanpur, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Kutch, Bagru, Chittroli, Sanganer, Jaipur and Jodhpur.

Indian Paintings

Prehistoric Cave Paintings

• Painted rock shelters by prehistoric cave dwellers
• Notable example →  Bhimbetka caves in the Kaimur Range, MP (biggest prehistoric art depositoryin India)

Genres of Indian Painting

• Indian paintings can be broadly classified as murals and miniatures.
• Murals are large works executed on the walls of solid structures directly, as in the Ajanta Caves & Kailash temple (Ellora)
• Miniature paintings are executed on a very small scale for books or albums on perishable material such as paper and cloth.

Mural Paintings

• Mural is the only form of painting that is truly three-dimensional, since it modifies and partakes of a given space.
• Mural paintings are applied on dry wall with the major use of egg, yolk, oil, etc.

• Notable examples → Ajanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Sittanavasal Caves, Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu), Kailasa temple (Ellora Caves)
• Murals from this period depict mainly religious themes of Buddhist, Jain and Hindu

Ajanta Murals Paintings

• Depict a large number of incidents from the life of the Buddha (Jataka Tales)
• Exclusively Buddhist, excepting decorative patterns on the ceilings and the pillars.

Ellora Murals Paintings

• Painted in rectangular panels with thick borders with following
• Prominent features →  Sharp twist of the head + painted angular bents of the arms + sharp projected nose + long drawn open eyes + concave curve of the close limbs

Badami Mural Paintings

• A cave site in Karnataka, patronized by chalukya king, Manglesha
• Depictions in the caves show Vaishnava affiliation, Therefore, the cave is popularly known as Vishnu cave.

Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and Cholas

• Paintings at the Kanchipuram temple were patronised by Pallava king, Rajsimha
• Paintings at Tirumalaipuram caves & Jaina caves at Sittanvasal were patronised by Padayas
• Paintings at Nartamalai & Brihadeswara temple were patronized by Cholas

Vijayanagara murals (13^th century)

• Paintings at Virupaksha temple (Hamphi) & Lepakshi temple (Andhra Pradesh) were patronised by Vijayanagara Kings

Miniature Paintings

• The Palas of Bengal were the pioneers of miniature painting in India.
• The art of miniature painting reached its glory during the Mughal period.

The Pala School (11^th – 12^th century)

• Exist in the form of illustrations to the religious texts on Buddhism executed under the Palas of the eastern India & the Jain texts executed in western India
• The Buddhist monasteries of Nalanda, Odantapuri, Vikramsila & Somarupa were great centers of Buddhist learning and art.
• A large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to the Buddhist themes were written, illustrated with the images of Buddhist deities at these centers

• The Pala painting is characterized by sinuous line and subdued tones of colour

Western Indian School of Painting

• Also called Jaina Painting, largely devoted to the illustration of Jaina religious texts of the 12th–16th century
• Notable sites → Gujrat, Uttar Pradesh, Central India & Orissa
• Characterized by simple, bright colours, highly conventionalized figures, and wiry, angular drawing

Mughal Paintings (16^th – 19^th century)

• Mainly confined to miniature illustrations on the books or as single works to be kept in an album
• Mughal paintings were a unique blend of Indian, Persian (Safavi) and Islamic styles
• Marked by supple naturalism →  Primarily aristocratic and secular
• Tried to paint the classical ragas and Seasons or baramasa
• Tuti-nama – first art work of the Mughal School.
• Akbar’s reign (1556–1605) ushered a new era in Indian miniature painting.
• At Zenith under Jahangir who himself was a famous painter
• Jahangir encouraged artists to paint portraits and durbar scenes.
• Shah Jahan (1627–1658) continued the patronage of painting.
• Aurangzeb had no taste for fine arts.

• Most significant are Hamza Nama, Razm-Nama or “The Book of War”, Akbar Nama
• Finest example of this school includes Hamzanama series, started in 1567 & completed in 1582
• Hamzanama →  Stories of Amir Hamza, illustrated by Mir Sayyid Ali
• 1200 paintings on themes of Changeznama, Zafarnama & Ramayana
• The paintings of the Hamzanama are of large size, 20” x 27″ and were painted on cloth.
• They are in the Persian safavi style with dominating colours being red, blue and green
• Indian tones appear in later work, when Indian artists were employed

Rajput Painting (16^th – 19^th century)

• the art of the independent Hindu feudal states in India
• Unlike Mughal paintings which were contemporary in style, Rajput paintings were traditional & romantic
• Rajput painting is further divided into Rajasthani painting and Pahari painting (art of the Himalayan kingdoms)

Central Indian and Rajasthani Schools (17^th – 19^th Century)

• Deeply rooted in the Indian traditions, taking inspiration from Indian epics, Puranas, love poems & Indian folk-lore
• Mughal artists of inferior merit who were no longer required by the Mughal Emperors, migrated to Rajasthan

Malwa paintings (17^th century)

• Centred largely in Malwa and Bundelkhand (MP); sometimes referred as Central Indian painting due to its geographical distribution.

• This school’s most appealing features is its primitive charm & a simple childlike vision

Kishangarh paintings (18^th century)

• Distinguished by its individualistic facial type and its religious intensity
• Developed under the patronage of Raja Savant Singh (1748-1757 AD) by master artist Nihal Chand

Mewar (Udaipur) Paintings (17^th – 18^th century)

• Characterized by bold bright contrasting colours and direct emotional appeal
• The earliest-dated examples come from Ragmala (musical modes) series painted in 1605

• Reflects portraiture & life of the ruler, along with religious themes

Marwar (Jodhpur) Paintings

• Executed in a primitive and vigorous folk style
• Completely uninfluenced by the Mughal style.
• Portrays court scenes, series of Ragamala & Baramasa

Bundi paintings (Late 17^th century)

• Very close to the Mewar style, but the former excels the latter in quality
• Prominent features → Rich and glowing colours, the rising sun in golden colour, crimson-red horizon, border in brilliant red colour (in Rasikpriya series)
• Notable examples → Bhairavi Ragini (Allahabad Museum), illustrated manuscript of the Bhagawata Purana (Kota Museum) & a series of the Rasikapriya (National Museum, Delhi)

Kota paintings (18^th – 19^th century)

• Very similar to Bundi style of paintings
• Themes of tiger and bear hunt were popular
• Most of the space in painting is occupied by the hilly jungle

The Pahari Schools (17^th – 19^th Century)

Comprises the present State of Himachal Pradesh, some adjoining areas of the Punjab, the area of Jammu, & Garhwal in Uttarakhand

Basohli Paintings (17^th – 18^th century)

• known for its bold vitality of colour, lines & red borders
• Emotional scenes from a text called “Rasamanjari” →  Krishna legend
• Favoured oblong format, with the picture space usually delineated by architectural detail, which often breaks into the characteristic red borders
• Stylized facial type, shown in profile, is dominated by the large, intense eyes

Guler painting (Jammu)

• Mainly consisting of portraits of Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota (Jammu) designed by Nainsukh
• Colours used are soft and cool unlike Basohli school

• Style appears to have been inspired by the naturalistic style of the Mughal painting

Kangra painting (Late 18^th century)

• The Kangra style is developed out of the Guler style & possesses its main characteristics, like the delicacy of drawing & naturalism
• The Kangra style continued to flourish at various places namely Kangra, GuIer, Basohli, Chamba, Jammu, Nurpur and Garhwal etc.
• However, Named as Kangra style as they are identical in style to the portraits of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra
• In these paintings, the faces of women in profile have the nose almost in line with the forehead, the eyes are long & narrow, & chin is sharp.

• There is, however, no modelling of figures and hair is treated as a flat mass.
• Paintings of the Kangra style are attributed mainly to the Nainsukh family.

Kullu – Mandi painting

• A folk style of painting in the Kulu-Mandi area, mainly inspired by the local tradition
• The style is marked by bold drawing and the use of dark and dull colours

Independent Paintings

Kalighat Paintings (Kolkata – 19^th century)

• Patua painters from rural Bengal came and settled in Kalighat to make images of gods and goddesses in the early 19^th century
• They evolved a quick method of painting on mill-made paper
• Used brush and ink from the lampblack

Madhubani Paintings (Mithila – Bihar)

• Colorful auspicious images on the interior walls of homes on the occasion of rituals & festivity → painted by women
• This ancient tradition, especially elaborated for marriages, continues today.
• Used to paint the walls of room, known as KOHBAR GHAR in which the newly wedded couple meets for the first time
• Very conceptual, first, the painter thinks & then “draws her thought”

Phad paintings (Bhilwada, Rajasthan)

• Phad is a painted scroll, which depicts stories of epic dimensions about local deities and legendary heroes.
• Bhopas (local priests) carry these scrolls on their shoulders from village to village for a performance.

• Represents the moving shrine of the deity and is an object of worship
• Most popular & largest Phad – local deities Devnarayanji and Pabuji

Kalamkari Paintings (Andhra Pradesh)

• Literal meaning is painting done by kalam (pen) , Mainly in Andhra Pradesh (developed under Vijaynagar rulers)
• Stories from the epics Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Puranas are painted as continuous narratives
• Mainly to decorate temple interiors with painted cloth panels scene after scene; Every scene is surrounded by floral decorative patterns
  

Warli painting

• Practiced in tribal regions of Maharashtra with subjects, predominantly religious
• decorative paintings on floors & walls of ‘gond’ and ‘kol’ tribes homes and places of worship
• made in a geometric patterns like squares, triangles, and circles
• Unlike other tribal art forms, Warli paintings do not employ religious iconography and is a more secular art form.

Handicrafts

Kashmir	Embroidered shawls, carpets, namdar silk and walnut wood furniture
Rajasthan	precious stone and jems + tie & dye (Bandhani) fabric + minakari work
Andhra Pradesh	Bidri work and Pochampad saris
Tamil Nadu	bronze sculpture and Kajeevaram silk saris
Mysore	silk, sandalwood items
Kerala	ivory carvings and rosewood furniture
Assam	cane furniture
Bengal	Bankura terracotta modelling and handloom items
Benaras	Brocade & silk saris
Madhya Pradesh	Chanderi and kosa silk
Lucknow	chikan work  (Zardozi Embroidery – Muslims in Lucknow)
Punjab	Phulkari embroidery
Bengal	Kantha embroidery
Orissa	Patola embroidery
Budhhists	Thangka painting

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1.Excavations in Kutch shed light on early Harappan custom

• Archaeological excavations undertaken by a group of researchers have shed light on the custom and burial rituals that were prevalent during the early Harappan phase.
• The team which camped in Khatiya village of Kutch unearthed several skeletal remains from a cemetery-like burial site where 26 graves out of the nearly 300-odd ones were excavated.

2.Chalukyan sculpture of Siva found in Andhra Pradesh

• A rare sculpture of Lord Siva and Goddess Parvati dating back to the 7th century was discovered at a Chalukyan temple in Satyavolu village of Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh.
• The red sandstone sculpture portrays Lord Siva as the therapeutic physician (Rudra Bhaishajana) — as described in Rigveda — in which he holds a bowl in his left hand, which contains medicine from herbs to revive the ailing horse lying at his feet.
• Siva was fairly represented in sculptural art of ancient India in many forms right from the Indus Valley civilization to the late medieval period.

Chalukyan Architecture (5th – 8th CE)

1. The temples under the Chalukyas are a good example of the Vesara style of architecture.
2. This is also called the Deccan style or Karnataka Dravida or Chalukyan style. It is a combination of Dravida and Nagara styles.
3. The building material they used was reddish-golden Sandstone found locally.
4. The temples had beautiful mural paintings also.
5. The temples are located on the banks of River Tungabhadra and Malprabaha in Karnataka and Alampur in Andhra Pradesh.
6. Aihole temples: Ladh Khan temple (Surya Temple), Durga temple, Huchimalligudi temple, Jain temple at Meguti by Ravikirti..
7. Badami temples: Virupaksha temple and Sangameshwara Temple are in Dravida style. Papanatha temple is in Nagara style.
8. Pattadakkal: is a UNESCO World Heritage site. There are ten temples here – 4 in Nagar style and 6 in Dravida style.

3.Archaeologists find pre-Columbian mass child sacrifice site in Peru

• A group of archaeologists has discovered the remains of more than 50 children who were ritually sacrificed by the pre-Columbian Chimu culture on the northern coast of what is now Peru
• The new sacrifice site was discovered in the Pamapa La Cruz area in Huanchaco, a coastal district of Trujillo, Peru’s third-largest city

Other similar places

• In Huanchaquito, the remains of over 140 children and 200 llamas slain some 550 years ago were discovered
• It reinforces the idea that Huanchaco was a place where massive sacrifices of children were made during the Chimu culture

Pre-Columbian Chimu culture

• The Chimú culture was centred on Chimor with the capital city of Chan Chan, a large adobe city in the Moche Valley of present-day Trujillo, Peru
• The culture arose about 900 AD, succeeding the Moche culture
• The Chimú people are best known for their distinctive monochromatic pottery and fine metal working of copper, gold, silver, bronze, and tumbaga (copper and gold)
• The pottery is often in the shape of a creature or has a human figure sitting or standing on a cuboid bottle

4.India gets its 37th UNESCO World Heritage Site

• India’s nomination of the “Victorian and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai” has been inscribed on UNESCO’s World Heritage list.
• The decision was taken at the 42^nd session of the World Heritage Committee of UNESCO at Manama in Bahrain today.
• This achievement is especially remarkable in the view of the successive inscription of another Indian city after Ahmedabad last year

About the Ensembles

• Together, this architectural ensemble represents the most remarkable collection of Victorian and Art Deco buildings in the world which forms the unique character of this urban setting, unparalleled in the world.
• The Ensemble consists of 94 buildings primarily of 19^th century Victorian Gothic revival and early 20^th century Art Deco style of architecture with the Oval Maidan in the centre.
• The 19^th century Victorian buildings form part of the larger Fort precinct situated to the east of the Oval Maidan.
• These public buildings include the Old Secretariat (1857-74), University Library and Convention Hall (1874-78), the Bombay High Court (1878), the Public Works Department Office (1872), Watson’s Hotel (1869), David Sasoon Library (1870), the Elphinstone College(1888), etc.
• The Art Deco styled buildings to the west of the Oval Maidan were raised in early 20^th century on the newly reclaimed lands at Marine Drive and symbolised the shift in expression to represent contemporary aspirations.

UNESCO World Heritage Properties in India

• In the past 5 years alone, India has managed to get inscribed seven of its properties/sites on the World Heritage List of UNESCO.
• India now has overall 37 World Heritage Inscriptions with 29 Cultural, 07 Natural and 01 Mixed sites.
• While India stands second largest in number after China in terms of number of World Heritage properties in ASPAC (Asia and Pacific) region, it is overall sixth in the world.

5.Thanjavur Paintings

Thanjavur Paintings

• It is a classical South Indian painting style, which was inaugurated from the town of Thanjavur and spread across the adjoining and geographically contiguous old Tamil country.
• The art form draws its immediate resources and inspiration from way back about 1600 AD, a period when the Nayakas of Thanjavur under the suzerainty of the Vijayanagara Rayas.
• It is distinguished by its famous gold coating.
• However, it can safely be surmised that Thanjavur painting, as we know it now, originated in the Maratha court of Thanjavur (1676 – 1855).
• It has been recognized as a Geographical indication by the Government of India in 2007-08.

6.Ancient rocks in India give clues to early life

Cambrian Explosion

• It refers to the sudden appearance in the fossil record of complex animals with mineralized skeletal remains 541 million years ago.
• Researchers have found the oldest clue to the mystery of animal life in ancient rocks and oils dating back at least 100 million years before the famous Cambrian explosion of animal fossils.
• Researchers at the University of California tracked molecular signs of animal life, called biomarkers, as far back as 660-635 million years ago during the Neoproterozoic era.
• In ancient rocks and oils from India, Oman, Siberia, they found a steroid compound produced only by sponges, which are among the earliest forms of animal life.

Demosponge

• A sponge is a member of the phylum Porifera.
• It is a simple marine animal with many cells, but no mouth, muscles, heart or brain.
• Demosponges is a class that contains most of the sponges.
• The sponges in this class make their skeleton from Spongin, a special protein.

7.Buddhist site museum at Lalitgiri Odisha

• One of the earliest Buddhist settlements in Odisha, Lalitgiri (Located in Cuttack district), where excavations have yielded ancient seals and inscriptions, has been converted into a museum.

Lalitgiri Museum

• Located in Cuttack district, it will be the third site museum of the Bhubaneswar circle of the ASI after Ratnagiri and Udaygiri.
• The three sites together form the Diamond Triangle of Buddhism in Odisha.
• The museum complex is spread over 4,750 sq. m. The building and auditorium are built over 1,310 sq. m. The complex has been constructed at a cost of ₹10 crore.

Historical importance of Lalitgiri

• Excavations at Lalitgiri have yielded the remains of four monasteries, showing cultural continuity from the post-Mauryan period till the 13th century CE.
• Tantric Buddhism was practiced at this site.
• The centre of attraction is a relic casket containing corporal remains found inside the Mahastupta.
• Huge sculptures of Buddha, architectural fragments of Viharas and Chaityas are arranged period-wise.
• The central gallery is designed after a Buddha Mandala with a colossal Buddha image at the centre and six Bodhisattva images surrounding it.

8.Reconstitution of Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR)

• The Government has reconstituted the Indian Council of Historical Research (ICHR), New Delhi for a period of three years till 2022.

Indian Council of Historical Research

• The ICHR is an autonomous body of the HRD Ministry, which had been established by an Administrative Order of the then Ministry of Education.
• The body has provided financial assistance to the historians and direction to the research scholars in their multifarious topics of historical research through established historians and scholars of the country.
• ICHR disburses funds for carrying out research to Indian as well as foreign scholars on their applications for fellowships, grants, and symposia.

9.The Indian Museum of the Earth (TIME)

• India has set in motion an ambitious plan to create Indianised version of the world-famous Smithsonian Museum, showcasing Indian subcontinent’s evolutionary history.

The Indian Museum of the Earth (TIME)

• This museum will be modelled on the American Museum of Natural History, or the Smithsonian museum in the U.S.
• The museum, which will be set up as a public-private partnership, would be located somewhere in NCR.
• Unlike static museums that are commonplace, the proposed Earth museum would be a dynamic place to encourage fossil research, student activity, public outreach besides driving policy decisions.
• The museum would be having a repository where individual collectors and researchers can submit their life long collection for safekeeping and allowing future generation researchers to study those samples.

10. Development of Rakhi Garhi Archaeological Site

Rakhi Garhi

Rakhi Garhi is being developed as one of the five Identified Iconic Archaeological Sites, informed the Minister of Culture and Tourism.
The ancient site of Rakhi-Khas and Rakhi-Shahpur are collectively known as Rakhigarhi, located on the right bank of the now dried up Palaeo-channel of Drishadvati.
It is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain in the Hissar district of Haryana.
Seven mounds are located here.
The site has yielded various stages of Harappan culture and is by far one of the largest Harappan sites in India.
The site shows the sequential development of the Indus culture in the now dried up Saraswati basin.

Major findings at Rakhi Garhi

• Findings confirm both early and mature Harappan phases and include 4,600-year-old human skeletons, fortification and bricks.
  Digging so far reveals a well-planned city with 1.92 m wide roads, a bit wider than in Kalibangan.
• The pottery is similar to Kalibangan and Banawali.
  Pits surrounded by walls have been found, which are thought to be for sacrificial or some religious ceremonies.
• There are brick-lined drains to handle sewage from the houses.
  Terracotta statues, weights, bronze artefacts, comb, copper fish hooks, needles and terracotta seals have also been found.
• A bronze vessel has been found which is decorated with gold and silver.
• A granary belonging to the mature Harappan phase has been found here.
• Fire altars structures were revealed in Rakhigarhi.

Five Iconic Archaeological Sites

The government has proposed to develop five archaeological sites as “iconic sites” with onsite museums in Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Hastinapur (Uttar Pradesh), Sivsagar (Assam), Dholavira (Gujarat) and Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu) in the Union Budget 2020-21.

(1) Rakhigari (Discussed above)

(2) Hastinapur

Hastinapur in the Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh finds mention in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. One of the most significant discoveries made at this site was of the “new ceramic industry”, which was named the Painted Grey Ware, which as per the report represented the relics of the early Indo-Aryans.

(3) Sivasagar

In Sivasagar (Assam), excavations at the Karenghar (Talatalghar) complex between 2000 and 2003 led to the discovery of buried structures in the north-western and north-eastern side of the complex. Among the structural remains found at the site were ceramic assemblages including vases, vessels, dishes, and bowls, etc. Terracotta smoking pipes were also found.

(4) Dholavira

Dholavira in Gujarat is located in the Khadir island of the Rann of Kutch, and like Rakhigarhi is one of the sites where the remains of the Harappan civilization have been found. It is unique because the remains of a complete water system have been found here.

(5) Adichnallur

Adichnallur lies in the Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu. The urn-burial site was first brought to light during a “haphazard excavation” by a German archaeologist in 1876. Following this, an Englishman Alexander Rae excavated the site between 1889 and 1905.

11. 10th century Buddhist Monastery uncovered in Jharkhand’s Hazaribagh

Details of the excavation

• The findings were significant since the monastery is on the old route to Varanasi, 10 km from Sarnath, where the Buddha gave his first sermon.
• Archaeologists found four statues of the deity Tara in Varad Mudra and six statues of the Buddha in bhumisparsa Mudra
• So it is a significant finding as deity Tara’s statues mean this was an important centre of the Vajrayana sect of Buddhism.
• Vajrayana is a form of Tantric Buddhism, which flourished in India from the 6th to 11th century.

Inscription on Krishnadevaraya’s death discovered

• The first-ever epigraphical reference to the date of death of Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya has been discovered in the Tumakuru district of Karnataka.
• Krishna Devaraya was the emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire during 1509–1529. He was the third ruler of the Tuluva Dynasty and is considered to be its greatest ruler.
• He possessed the largest empire in India after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.
• Krishnadevaraya earned the titles Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana (lit, “Lord of the Kannada empire”), Andhra Bhoja (lit, “Andhra Bhoja(Scholar) King”) and Mooru Rayara Ganda (lit, “King of Three Kings”).
• He became the dominant ruler of the peninsula of India by defeating the Sultans of Bijapur, Golconda, the Bahmani Sultanate and the Gajapatis of Odisha, and was one of the most powerful Hindu rulers in India.
• Indeed, when the Mughal Emperor Babur was taking stock of the potentates of north India, Krishnadevaraya was rated the most powerful and had the most extensive empire in the subcontinent.
• Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz also visited the Vijayanagara Empire during his reign.

His literary work

• The rule of Krishnadevaraya was an age of prolific literature in many languages, although it is also known as a golden age of Telugu literature.
• He was fluent in many languages like Kannada, Marathi, Sanskrit, Telugu and Tamil.
• Eight Telugu poets were regarded as eight pillars of his literary assembly and known as Ashtadiggajas. He himself composed an epic Telugu poem Amuktamalyada.
• He took the title of Abhinava-Bhoja and Sakala-Kala-Bhoja (“Bhoja of all the arts”) in honour of Parmara emperor Bhoja who was a polymath, a master of 64 arts and a military genius.

What does the inscription say?

• As per the inscription, Krishnadevaraya died on October 17, 1529, Sunday.
• Incidentally, this day was marked by a lunar eclipse.
• The inscription also registers the gift of village Honnenahalli in
• Tumakuru for conducting worship to the god Veeraprasanna Hanumantha of Tumakuru.
• The Kalahasti inscription refers to the date of Achyutaraya’s (his successor) coronation as October 21, 1529 AD.

Dickinsonia fossil discovered in Bhimbetka

Researchers have found the first-ever fossil in India of a Dickinsonia —the Earth’s ‘oldest animal’, dating back 570 million years — on the roof of what’s called the ‘Auditorium Cave’ at Bhimbetka.

Dickinsonia

• Dickinsonia is an extinct genus of basal animal that lived during the late Ediacaran period in what is now Australia, Russia and Ukraine.
• The individual Dickinsonia typically resembles a bilaterally symmetrical ribbed oval.
• Its affinities are presently unknown; its mode of growth is consistent with a stem-group bilaterian affinity, though some have suggested that it belongs to the fungi or even an “extinct kingdom”.
• The discovery of cholesterol molecules in fossils of Dickinsonia lends support to the idea that Dickinsonia was an animal.

What are the new findings?

• Like the awe-inspiring rock shelters themselves, this fossil was discovered by chance.
• Dickinsonia fossils have shown that they could exceed four feet in length but the one found in Bhimbetka is 17 inches long.
• Eleven feet above the ground, almost blending with the rock and easily mistaken by laymen for prehistoric rock art, they found imprints of the Dickinsonia.
• It is believed to be one of the key links between the early, simple organisms and the explosion of life in the Cambrian Period, about 541 million years ago.

Cambrian Explosion and Dickinsonia

• The ‘Cambrian Explosion’ is the term given to the period of time in history when complex animals and other macroscopic organisms such as molluscs, worms, arthropods and sponges began to dominate the fossil record.
• Researchers from Australian found the Dickinsonia fossil since its tissue contained molecules of cholesterol a type of fat that is the hallmark of animal life.

Sulawesi Cave Paintings

• The cave painting depicts a wild boar endemic to the Sulawesi island of Indonesia, where the painting was found.
• The central Indonesian island, which occupies an area of over 174,000 sq. km, is situated between Asia and Australia.
• It has a long history of human occupation.

Significance of the painting

• The archaeologists’ note that the dated painting of the Sulawesi warty pig seems to be the world’s oldest surviving representational image of an animal.
• The painting was made using red ochre pigment and depicts a pig with a short crest of upright hairs and a pair of horn-like facial warts in front of the eyes.
• These pigs have been hunted by humans for tens of thousands of years and are the most commonly depicted animal in the ice age rock art of the island.
• It suggests that they have long been used as food and form a “focus of creative thinking and artistic expression” for people of that time.

Annapurna Idol

• Annapurna, also spelt Annapoorna, is the goddess of food.
  This 18th-century idol, carved in the Benares was stolen from a temple of Varanasi and smuggled out around 100 years ago somewhere around 1913.
• Now is part of the University of Regina, Canada’s collection at the MacKenzie Art Gallery.
• The idol holds a bowl of kheer in one hand and a spoon in the other.

Dairy production in the Indus Valley Civilization

• By analysing residues on ancient pots, researchers show the earliest direct evidence of dairy product processing, thus throwing fresh light on the rural economy of the civilization.
• The studies were carried out on 59 shards of pottery from Kotada Bhadli, a small archaeological site in present-day Gujarat.

A significant outcome of the study

• The study has found residues in a bowl showing that either heated milk or curd could have been served.
• There are also remains of a perforated vessel, and similar vessels were used in Europe to make cheese.
• The Harappans did not just use dairy for their household.
• The large herd indicates that milk was produced in surplus so that it could be exchanged and there could have been some kind of trade between settlements.
• This could have given rise to an industrial level of dairy exploitation.

Sawantwadi Toy

• Sawantwadi toys refers to hand made works of art made of wood in Sawantwadi a town in Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra. Most of these toys are made in the village of Kolgaon in Sawantwadi taluka.
• These toys are made from the wood of the Indian Coral tree (Erythrina variegata).
• Craftsmen who make these toys belong to the Chittari community who came to Sawantwadi from Karwar and Goa.

Renati Chola Era Inscription

Who are the Renati Cholas?

• The Telugu Cholas of Renadu (also called as Renati Cholas) ruled over Renadu region, the present-day Kadapa district.
• They were originally independent, later forced to the suzerainty of the Eastern Chalukyas.
• They had the unique honour of using the Telugu language in their inscriptions belonging to the 6th and 8th centuries.
• The earliest of this family was Nandivarman (500 AD) who claimed descent from the family of Karikala and the Kasyapa gotra.
• He had three sons Simhavishnu, Sundarananda and Dhananjaya, all of whom were ruling different territories simultaneously.
• The family seems to have had its origin in Erigal in the Tunmkur district, situated in the border between Pallava and Kadamba regions.

About the inscription

• The inscription so found was engraved on a dolomite slab and shale.
  The inscription was written in archaic Telugu which is readable in 25 lines — the first side with eleven lines and the remaining on the other side.
• It was assigned to the 8th Century A.D. when the region was under the rule of Chola Maharaja of Renadu.
• The inscription seems to throw light on the record of a gift of six Marttus (a measuring unit) of land gifted to a person Sidyamayu, one of the Brahmins serving the temple at Pidukula village.
• It says the people who safeguard this inscription for future generations will acquire the status of conducting Aswamedha Yajna and those destroying it will incur sin equivalent to causing death in Varanasi.

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1. Important Temples/Monasteries/Stupa/Caves- Click2view

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