Category: X Factor Notes

Biological and public health emergencies (BPHE)

A biological emergency is one caused due to natural outbreaks of epidemics or the intentional use of biological agents (Viruses and microorganisms) or toxins through the dissemination of such agents in ways to harm the human population, food, crops, and livestock to cause outbreaks of disease.

Pandemics and Epidemics: Widespread outbreaks of infectious diseases. Example: The COVID-19 pandemic, which began in late 2019 and affected India and the world.

• Biological hazardous events may include severe economic and environmental losses.
• The Ebola Virus Disease outbreak in West Africa in 2013-2016, was the largest epidemic of its kind to date in the populations of Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone.
• The outbreak of Zika virus infection in the Americas and the Pacific region is associated with congenital and other neurological disorders.
• Significant increase in diarrheal disease incidences following recurrent floods in most African countries or a significant increase following the 2004 tsunami in Indonesia and Thailand.
• Outbreaks of yellow fever in Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Uganda in 2016.
• Outbreaks of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome – Coronavirus (MERS CoV), an emerging disease identified in 2012.
• An outbreak of Sars Cov-2 COVID at the end of 2019.

States Prone:

• Epidemics and Infectious Diseases:    
  • Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
  • Bengal: These densely populated states are often vulnerable to outbreaks of diseases like cholera, dengue, and viral fevers.
  • Maharashtra, Kerala, Tamil Nadu: These states have urban centers where infectious diseases can spread quickly.
• Vector-Borne Diseases:
  • States with Tropical Climates (e.g., Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and parts of Maharashtra): Due to disease-carrying vectors, these regions are susceptible to diseases like malaria and dengue.
• Zoonotic Diseases:
  • States with High Agricultural Activity (e.g., Punjab, Haryana): Due to close contact with livestock, these states may be at risk of zoonotic diseases transmitted from animals to humans.
• Tribal and Remote Areas:
  • States with Tribal Populations (e.g., Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, parts of Odisha): Remote and tribal areas can face unique public health challenges, including limited access to healthcare.
• Environmental Pollution:
  • Urban States and Cities (e.g., Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata): High levels of air pollution in major cities can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular health emergencies.

Criteria to Declare:

1. Outbreak of Infectious Disease: A sudden outbreak or epidemic of a highly contagious or deadly infectious disease.
2. Spread Beyond Control: The outbreak spreads beyond the capacity for local healthcare and containment measures.
3. High Mortality or Morbidity: The disease causes a high rate of illness, severe illness, or death in the affected population.

Causes:

1. Natural, accidental, or deliberate dispersal of harmful agents into food, water, air, soil, or into plants, crops, or livestock.
2. Weapons of biological warfare and bioterrorism.

Way Forward:

1. Preventative measures such as proper sanitation, vaccination, and biosecurity protocols are essential in minimizing these risks.
2. Early detection, monitoring, and rapid response are crucial for mitigating the potential harm caused by biological hazards.
3. Public awareness and education also play a vital role in reducing exposure to biological hazards and ensuring the safety of individuals and communities.

Cold wave: A rapid fall in temperature within 24 hours to a level requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture, industry, commerce, and social activities.

Derecho: “a widespread, long-lived, straight-line windstorm (no rotation like a tornado)” that is associated with a “band of rapidly moving showers or thunderstorms”.

The name comes from the Spanish word ‘la derecha’ which means ‘straight’.

It is a warm-weather phenomenon that generally occurs in June and July.

Analysis period of 1971-2010:  Cold wave/ Severe cold wave spells are 1-2 days, but in some cases, it lasted for 10 days. There are more than an average of 6 cold wave days in the period.

• India’s ‘core cold wave zone’ covers Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Odisha and Telangana.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MAFW)

Cold Wave Types

1. Advection Cold Wave: This occurs when cold air moves into an area, lowering temperatures. An example is the Siberian cold wave in Europe during winter.
2. Radiation Cold Wave: This happens under clear skies with calm winds, allowing heat to radiate away at night. An example is a clear winter night in the northern United States.
3. Frontal Cold Wave: Results from the passage of a cold front, causing a sudden drop in temperature. Example: A cold front moving through during a thunderstorm.

Criteria to Declare:

If the Wind chill factor (a measure of the cooling effect of the wind on the temperature of the air)

is 10°C or less, then only the conditions for cold waves are considered.

• For the plains: When the minimum temperature is 10 degrees Celsius or below and is 4.5 to 5.5 degrees Celsius (C) less than normal for two consecutive days. A severe cold wave is declared when the temperature deviation from normal is -6 to -7 degrees Celsius. When the Wind chill factor is 0°C or less, the Cold Wave should be declared irrespectively.
• For coastal stations: The threshold value of a minimum temperature of 10 degrees Celsius is rarely reached. However, the local people feel discomfort due to the wind chill factor which reduces the minimum temperature by a few degrees depending upon the wind speed.

Causes:

• Cold wave:
  1. Absence of cloud cover in the region: Clouds trap some of the outgoing infrared radiation and radiate it back downward, warming the ground.
  2. Snowfall in the upper Himalayas has blown cold winds towards the region.
  3. Subsidence of cold air over the region: Subsidence is the downward movement of cold and dry air closer to the surface.
  4. Prevailing weak La Nina conditions in the Pacific Ocean.
  5. La Nina is the abnormally cooler sea surface temperature reported along the equatorial Pacific Ocean and it is known to favor cold waves.
  6. During La Nina years, the severity of cold conditions becomes intense. The frequency and area covered under the grip of a cold wave become larger.
• Derechos:
  1. Heat and Moisture: Associated with warm, moist air masses, often develop in the warm sector of a rapidly moving low-pressure system.
  2. Atmospheric Instability: Derechos require atmospheric instability, which is characterized by rising warm air and falling cool air.
  3. Squall Line: Derechos are a type of severe windstorm associated with a long-lived squall line of severe thunderstorms.
  4. Downbursts: Within the squall line, downbursts are powerful & can create straight-line wind damage over a wide area.
  5. High Wind Gusts: Derechos are known for their destructive straight-line wind gusts, which can exceed 58 miles per hour (93 kilometers per hour) and are often associated with widespread wind damage.

Mitigation:

1. Shelter and Relief Camps: Setting up temporary shelters and relief camps to provide warmth, food, and medical assistance.
2. Winter Clothing Distribution: Distributing warm clothing, blankets, and winter essentials to communities in need.
3. Weather Forecasting and Early Warning Systems: Improving weather forecasting capabilities and disseminating timely cold wave warnings to the public.
4. Community Awareness Programs: Educate people about the risks of cold waves and the importance of staying warm, along with tips for winter safety.
5. Heating Facilities: Installing heating facilities in public spaces, like community centers, schools, and hospitals.
6. Power Supply Maintenance: Ensuring the reliability of power supply during cold waves to avoid disruptions in heating systems and essential services.
7. Social Support Programs: Providing financial assistance and support to vulnerable populations.
8. Coordination with NGOs and International Agencies: Collaborating with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and international agencies to enhance the reach and effectiveness of cold wave mitigation efforts.

Way Forward:

Cold Wave: Improve winter preparedness, provide shelter for vulnerable populations, and ensure access to heating resources in affected areas. Address climate change to reduce the frequency and severity of cold waves.

Derecho: Enhance early warning systems for severe thunderstorms, strengthen infrastructure against high winds, and educate the public on derecho risks. Foster regional cooperation for effective response to widespread derecho events.

The IPCC defines heatwave as “a period of abnormally hot weather, often defined with reference to a relative temperature threshold, lasting from two days to months.”

• Heatwaves Duration Index & World Meteorological Organization— A heat wave occurs when the daily maximum temperature of more than five consecutive days exceeds the average maximum temperature by 5 °C (9 °F).
• Heatwaves typically occur between March and June, more frequently over the Indo-Gangetic plains, on average, 5-6 heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of the country.
• Heat cramps: Edelman (Swelling) and syncope (Fainting) are generally accompanied by fever below 39 degrees Celsius.
• Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle cramps, and sweating.
• Heat stroke: Body temperature is at 40°C or more along with delirium, seizures, or coma which is potentially fatal.
• Heat waves are more frequent over the Indo-Gangec plains of India. On average, 5-6 heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of the country.

Nodal Ministry: Indian Meteorological Department (Ministry of Earth Sciences, MOES)

Types of HeatWaves:

1. Moderate Heatwave: A heatwave with temperatures exceeding the normal maximum by 3-5°C. Example: A moderate heatwave in Delhi with temperatures reaching 42°C (108°F) in May.
2. Severe Heatwave: More intense than moderate heat waves, with temperatures exceeding the normal maximum by over 5°C. Example: A severe heatwave in Rajasthan with temperatures soaring to 50°C (122°F) in June.
3. Sustained Heatwave: A prolonged period of high temperatures lasting for several days. Example: A sustained heatwave in Odisha lasting for a week with temperatures consistently above 40°C (104°F).
4. Heatwave with High Humidity: Occurs when high humidity levels make it feel even hotter. Example: A humid heatwave in Mumbai with temperatures in the high 30s°C (around 100°F) and high humidity levels.

Criteria to declare:

1. Heatwave: When the maximum temperature of a met-substation reaches at least 40°C (104°F) in the plains or 37 degrees or more in coastal areas, 30°C (86°F) in hilly areas
2. Severe Heatwave: When the maximum temperature of a met substation reaches at least 45°C (113°F) in the plains or 30°C (86°F) in hilly regions.

Causes:

Heatwaves in India can be caused by various factors, including:

1. High Temperatures: India’s geographical location and topography make it susceptible to intense heat.
2. Seasonal Weather Patterns: The movement of weather systems, such as the Indian Ocean Dipole and El Niño, can influence temperature and precipitation patterns, contributing to heat waves.
3. Lack of Rainfall: Prolonged periods of low rainfall, or droughts, lead to soil moisture depletion and less evaporative cooling.
4. Urban Heat Island Effect: Urban areas with concrete and asphalt can absorb and retain heat, causing localized temperature increases. Rapid urbanization contributes to this effect.
5. Global Climate Change: Long-term changes in global climate patterns can result in more frequent and severe heat waves.
6. Wind Patterns: Changes in wind patterns can influence the movement of air masses, potentially trapping warm air and causing prolonged periods of extreme heat.
7. Monsoon Delay or Failure: The delay or failure of the monsoon contributes to heat waves.
8. Deforestation and Land Use Changes: Alterations in land cover, leading to higher temperatures.
9. Human Activities: Activities like industrial processes, transportation, and agriculture can release heat-trapping gases and pollutants, contributing to local warming.

Mitigation:

1. Early Warning Systems: Implement advanced meteorological forecasting systems to provide early warnings about impending heatwaves.
2. Cooling Centers: Establish cooling centers in urban areas where vulnerable populations can seek refuge during extreme heat events.
3. Urban Planning: Design and retrofit urban areas to reduce the urban heat island effect.
4. Building Design: Promote energy-efficient building designs incorporating natural cooling techniques, such as proper ventilation, insulation, and shading.
5. Public Awareness: Educate people about the risks of heat waves and the importance of staying hydrated, wearing appropriate clothing, and avoiding outdoor activities during peak heat hours.
6. Water Supply: Ensure stable and reliable access to clean water as it is crucial for hydration and cooling.
7. Healthcare Preparedness: Train healthcare workers to recognize and treat heat-related illnesses promptly.
8. Heat-Related Research: Invest in research to better understand local climate patterns, heatwave dynamics, and vulnerability assessments to tailor mitigation efforts effectively.
9. Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: As a long-term strategy, work towards reducing greenhouse gas emissions to mitigate the effects of global climate change.
10. Adaptive Agriculture: Promote climate-resilient agricultural practices to reduce the impact of heatwaves on food production and farmers.
11. Heat-Resilient Construction: Encourage the construction of buildings and infrastructure that can withstand extreme heat conditions.

NDMA Guidelines:

• You think someone is suffering from the heat:
  1. Move the person to a cool place under the shade
  2. Give water or a rehydrating drink (if the person is still conscious)
  3. Fan the person
  4. Consult a doctor if symptoms get worse or are long-lasting or if the person is unconscious
  5. Do not give alcohol, caffeine, or aerated drink
  6. Cool the person by putting a cool wet cloth on his/her face/body
  7. Loosen clothes for better ventilation
• Emergency Kit
  1. Water bottle
  2. Umbrella/ Hat or Cap / Head Cover
  3. Hand Towel
  4. Hand Fan
  5. Electrolyte / Glucose / Oral Rehydration

Way Forward:

1. The National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC) should be implemented in true spirit for inclusive growth and ecological sustainability.
2. Nature-based solutions should be considered, not just for tackling climate change-induced heat waves but also for doing so ethically and promoting intergenerational justice.
3. Sustainable Cooling
4. Passive cooling technology, a widely-used strategy to create naturally ventilated buildings, can be a vital alternative to address the urban heat island for residential and commercial buildings.
5. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in the third part of its AR6 stated that ancient Indian building designs that have used this technology, can be adapted to modern facilities in the context of global warming.

Broadly drought is perceived as a sharply felt water deficit caused by variations in the natural hydro-meteorological factors, agro-ecological conditions, and moisture requirements of crops under prevailing cropping choices (systems, patterns).

• A third of the country is drought-prone. It affects parts of Rajasthan (chronically), Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh (MP), Uttar Pradesh (UP), Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Andhra Pradesh.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MAFW)

Types of Droughts:

1. Meteorological Drought occurs when there is a prolonged period of significantly below-average precipitation. An example is a region experiencing several consecutive months of below-average rainfall, which leads to water shortages.
2. Agricultural Drought: When there is insufficient moisture for crops and vegetation to grow, impacting agriculture. Example: A prolonged dry spell affecting crop yields and forcing farmers to irrigate more
3. Hydrological Drought: This type reduces water availability in streams, rivers, and reservoirs. Example: A river experiencing low water levels due to prolonged dry conditions.
4. Socioeconomic Drought: When the impact of a drought extends to economic and social systems, affecting communities. An example is a drought causing food and water shortages, leading to economic hardship and migration.

Criteria To Declare:

The National Commission on Agriculture in India defines three types of droughts:

1. Meteorological drought — A situation when there is more than a 25% decrease from the long-term average precipitation over an area.
2. Agricultural drought, — the situation when soil moisture and rainfall are inadequate to support healthy crop growth
3. Hydrological drought — Prolonged meteorological drought manifested in depletion of surface and sub-surface water resources, which could occur even when the rainfall is normal if there has been a substantial reduction in surface water holding.

Causes:

1. Rainfall Deficiency:  Significant deficiency in rainfall, especially during the monsoon season, below-average monsoon rainfall can lead to drought conditions.
2. El Niño and La Niña: These climate phenomena in the Pacific Ocean can disrupt the normal monsoon patterns in India. El Niño is associated with drier conditions, while La Niña can bring excess rainfall or erratic monsoons.
3. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD): IOD events, characterized by sea surface temperature anomalies in the Indian Ocean, can influence the monsoon. A positive IOD can lead to drier conditions in India, contributing to droughts.
4. Delayed or Erratic Monsoons: Sometimes, the monsoon onset may be delayed, or the rains may be irregular, leading to uneven distribution of rainfall across regions and drought in some areas.
5. Temperature Extremes: High temperatures and heat waves can exacerbate drought conditions by increasing evaporation rates and drying out soil and water sources.
6. Deforestation and Land Degradation: Land-use changes, deforestation, and soil degradation can reduce the land’s capacity to retain moisture, making it more susceptible to drought.
7. Over-Extraction of Groundwater: Excessive withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation and domestic use can deplete aquifers and contribute to drought conditions.
8. Inefficient Water Management:  inefficient irrigation methods and mismanagement of water resources, exacerbate water scarcity during droughts.
9. Climate Change: Long-term climate change can alter precipitation patterns and increase the frequency and severity of drought events.

Mitigation:

• Drought Monitoring and Early Warning Systems:
  1. Establish and maintain EW systems to track rainfall, soil moisture, reservoir levels, and crop conditions.
  2. Provide timely information to farmers, policymakers, and the public about impending drought conditions.
• Contingency Planning:
  1. Prepare contingency plans at the district and state levels to respond to drought situations promptly.
  2. Ensure these plans include provisions for food and water supply, livestock care, and support for affected communities.
• Water Management:
  1. Promote efficient water management practices, including rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge, and the equitable distribution of water resources.
  2. Encourage the construction of small-scale water storage structures like check dams and farm ponds.
• Crop Diversification and Resilience:
  1. Encourage crop diversification to reduce dependency on water-intensive crops.
  2. Promote the adoption of drought-resistant crop varieties and sustainable agricultural practices.
• Social Safety Nets:
  1. Establish mechanisms to provide food and financial assistance to vulnerable populations during drought emergencies.
  2. Identify and prioritize the needs of marginalized communities and vulnerable groups.
• Awareness and Education:
  1. Educate farmers and communities about drought preparedness, water conservation, and sustainable land use practices.
  2. Promote training programs for farmers on resilient farming techniques.
• Research and Development: Invest in research and development to improve drought forecasting, crop varieties, and agricultural practices suited to arid and semi-arid regions.
• Infrastructure Development: Invest in rural infrastructure development, including roads, irrigation systems, and storage facilities to improve agricultural resilience.
• Cross-Sectoral Coordination: Facilitate coordination among various government departments, agencies, and stakeholders involved in drought management.
• Legislation and Policy Framework: Review and update drought-related legislation and policies to ensure they are responsive to evolving drought challenges.

NDMA Guidelines:

There is a need to develop a multi-criteria index to classify droughts based on several factors such as the following:

1. Meteorological (rainfall, temperature, etc.)
2. Soil conditions (depth, type, available water content, etc.)
3. Surface water use (proportion of irrigated area, surface water supplies, etc.)
4. Groundwater (availability, utilization, etc.)
5. Crop (cropping pattern changes, land use, crop conditions, anomalies in crop condition, etc.)
6. Socio-economic (proportion of weaker sections, poverty, size class of farm holdings, etc.)

Way Forward:

It is essential that along with a drought monitoring system, medium and long-term area-specific plans be prepared for drought-proofing of susceptible areas. While drought-proofing measures can significantly improve the coping capacity and dampen the impact of drought.

Wave Action: Physical processes and movements associated with the propagation of waves in a fluid medium, such as water or air. It influences coastal erosion, weather patterns, and the design of structures like bridges and offshore platforms.

• The IPCC (2013) has projected global sea-level rise for the period 2081-2100, compared with 1986-2005, to be 0.29-0.82 metres.
• These projections now include a contribution from changes in ice-sheet out-flow, for which the central projection is 0.11 metres.
• It is very likely that the rate of global mean sea-level rise during the 21st century will exceed the rate observed during the period 1970-2010 for all scenarios.
• About 70 % of the global coastlines are projected to experience a sea-level change within 20 % of the global mean sea-level change.
• Some models suggest sea-level rises of between 1 metre and 3 metres in response to carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations above 700 parts per million.
• Studies of the last interglacial period (e.g. Kopp et al., 2009) indicate a very high probability of a sea-level rise of 2 metres over 1 000 years, and cannot rule out values in excess of 4 metres.

States Prone:

1. Gujarat: The coastline of Gujarat along the Arabian Sea is exposed to significant wave action and coastal erosion.
2. Maharashtra: Coastal areas of Maharashtra, including cities like Mumbai, are vulnerable to monsoon storms, tidal waves, and wave action.
3. Goa: Goa faces risks associated with cyclones and storm surges, leading to wave action and erosion.
4. Karnataka: It is susceptible to wave action during monsoon seasons and cyclonic events.
5. Kerala: Kerala is prone to wave action, particularly during the southwest monsoon, and faces risks from storm surges.
6. Tamil Nadu: Exposed to cyclonic activity, leading to wave action and coastal erosion.
7. Andhra Pradesh: Vulnerable to cyclones and associated wave action, especially along the Bay of Bengal coast.
8. Odisha: The extensive coastline along the Bay of Bengal makes it susceptible to cyclones, storm surges, and wave action.
9. West Bengal: Coastal regions of West Bengal, including the Sundarbans delta, are at risk of tidal waves and wave action during cyclones.
10. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Located in the Bay of Bengal, these islands are prone to wave action and coastal hazards, including tsunamis and storm surges.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Earth Sciences (MOES)

Types:

1. Wind Waves: Generated by local winds, often seen on the ocean’s surface. Example: Ripples on a pond or whitecaps on the sea.
2. Swells: Long-period waves that have traveled far from their area of origin. Example: Groundswell generated by distant storms in the ocean.
3. Tsunamis: Large, long-period waves usually caused by undersea earthquakes or volcanic eruptions. Example: The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
4. Tidal Waves: Caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun, leading to rising and falling tides. Example: Daily high and low tides in coastal areas.

Criteria to Declare:

It typically doesn’t follow specific criteria, declaring a specific event related to wave action (e.g., a storm surge or tsunami) as a disaster or emergency may include:

1. Magnitude and Impact: The severity of wave height, energy, and potential impact on human life, property, and the environment.
2. Forecast and Warning: The issuance of official forecasts and warnings by IMD and NDMA.
3. Extent of Damage: Caused by impact on infrastructure, transportation, and essential services.
4. Local Jurisdictional Authority: Declarations of emergencies or disasters typically made at the local or regional level by municipal governments or state disaster management agencies.
5. Coordination: The coordination of first responders, and organizations involved in disaster management.

Causes of Wave Action :

1. Wind: Wind blowing over the water body generates friction with the water, creating ripples that evolve into waves. Strong winds can lead to larger and more powerful waves.
2. Seismic Activity: Earthquakes or volcanic eruptions beneath the ocean can generate tsunamis, which are large and destructive waves with extremely long wavelengths.
3. Gravitational Pull of the Moon and Sun: Tides are caused by the gravitational attraction of the Moon and the Sun. This gravitational pull results in the ebb and flow of water and can create wave-like motions.
4. Underwater Geological Features: Submerged features such as underwater ridges, seamounts, and continental shelves can influence the formation and behavior of waves.
5. Human Activities: Activities like ship traffic, coastal construction, and dredging lead to altered wave action along coastlines.

Mitigation:

• Coastal Engineering Structures:
  1. Seawalls: Constructing seawalls or revetments along the coastline can help absorb and deflect wave energy,
  2. Breakwaters: Breakwaters are structures built offshore to reduce the energy of incoming waves.
  3. Groynes and Jetties: designed to trap sand and sediment, helped to build and maintain beaches.
• Beach Nourishment: Adding sand or other sediments to eroded beaches enhancing their ability to absorb wave energy.
• Dune Restoration: Restoring or creating dunes with vegetation can help stabilize coastlines and provide protection.
• Coastal Zoning and Land-Use Planning: Implementing zoning regulations in high-risk coastal areas can reduce exposure to wave hazards.
• Early Warning Systems: In areas prone to tsunamis or storm surges, early warning systems can provide advance notice to residents, allowing them to evacuate to safer areas.
• Ecosystem-Based Approaches: Protecting and restoring coastal ecosystems like mangroves and wetlands can act as natural buffers against wave energy.
• Climate Adaptation Strategies: As climate change intensifies wave action, long-term adaptation strategies are essential for coastal resilience.
• Education and Awareness: Public awareness campaigns can inform about the risks associated.
• International Cooperation: In cases of transboundary wave hazards, international cooperation and agreements can help coordinate efforts to mitigate risks and respond to disasters.

NDMA Guidelines:

1. You should continue using a Weather Radio or staying tuned to a Coast Guard emergency frequency station or a local radio or television station for updated emergency information.
2. Check yourself for injuries and get first aid if necessary before helping injured or trapped persons.
3. Help people who require special assistance—Infants, elderly people,
4. Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear for emergency calls to get through.
5. Wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and sturdy shoes. The most common injury following a disaster is cut feet.
6. Use battery-powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings. Battery-powered lighting is the safest and easiest to use, and it does not present a fire hazard for the user, occupants, or building. DO NOT USE CANDLES.
7. Check for gas leaks.
8. Look for electrical system damage.
9. Watch for loose plaster, drywall, and ceilings that could fall.
10. Take pictures of the damage, both of the building and its contents, for insurance claims. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.

Way Forward:

1. It involves further research, sustainable harnessing of wave energy, and environmental impact assessment.
2. It’s essential to develop efficient wave energy technologies while minimizing ecological disruption and ensuring long-term viability.
3. Collaboration between scientists, engineers, and policymakers is key to advancing this renewable energy source.

Landslides: Movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope under the direct influence of gravity.

It is estimated that 30% of the world’s landslides occur in the Himalayan ranges.

In the Nilgiris alone, unprecedented rains in the region triggered about 100 landslides.

The mean rate of land loss is to the tune of 120 meters per kilometer per year and the annual soil loss is about 2500 tons per square kilometer.

Landslide Vulnerability Zones:

• Very High Vulnerability Zone: Highly unstable, relatively young mountainous areas in the Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar, Western Ghats and Nilgiris, the north-eastern regions.
• High Vulnerability Zone:  All the Himalayan states and the states from the north-eastern regions except the plains of Assam.

Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone: Areas that receive less precipitation such as Trans- Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), Aravali, rain shadow areas in the Western and Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau.

Types of landslides:

1. Rockfalls: Rapid descent of individual rock fragments. Example: Landslides along mountainous roads, like the Kedarnath landslide in India (2013).
2. Debris Flows: Fast-moving mix of water, soil, and debris. Example: The Oso landslide in Washington, USA (2014).
3. Mudslides: Slurry of waterlogged soil and debris. Example: The Sierra Leone mudslides in Freetown (2017).
4. Landslide Avalanches: Large-scale, fast-moving landslides. Example: The Randa rockslide in Switzerland (1991).
5. Creep: Slow, gradual downhill movement of soil or rock. Example: Ongoing creep on hillsides globally.
6. Earthflows: Sluggish flow of saturated soil and debris. Example: The Vaiont Dam landslide in Italy (1963).
7. Lateral Spreads: Horizontal movement of soil and rock. Example: The Hope Slide in British Columbia, Canada (1965).

Criteria to Declare:

The Indian government typically relies on a combination of criteria and monitoring systems to declare landslides and issue alerts. These criteria may include:

1. Geological Studies: Assessment of factors like soil types, rock formations, and past landslide history.
2. Rainfall Data: Heavy and prolonged rainfall can saturate the soil, increasing the likelihood of landslides.
3. Ground Movement Monitoring: Technologies like inclinometers and GPS are used to detect ground movement or slope instability in vulnerable areas.
4. Remote Sensing: Satellite imagery and aerial surveys are employed
5. Weather Forecasts: Meteorological data and weather forecasts are examined that could trigger landslides.
6. Historical Data: Past landslide events and their impact on specific regions are considered when assessing the risk of future landslides.
7. Early Warning Systems: Many states in India have early warning systems in place to provide alerts to residents in landslide-prone areas when conditions become hazardous.

Causes:

1. Natural
   1. Heavy Rainfall: Prolonged or intense rainfall can saturate the soil, making it more susceptible to sliding.
   2. Steep Slopes: Slopes with steep gradients are more prone to landslides.
   3. Earthquakes: Ground shaking from earthquakes can dislodge rocks and soil, leading to landslides.
   4. Volcanic Activity: By altering the landscape or generating pyroclastic flows.
   5. Erosion: Natural erosion processes, such as rivers undercutting hillsides.
   6. Soil Type: Loose, poorly compacted soils are more likely to fail.
   7. Freeze-Thaw Cycles: In colder climates, freeze-thaw cycles can expand and contract water within rocks and soil, leading to fracturing and landslides.
   8. Wildfires: Fires can destroy vegetation and alter soil properties, increasing the risk of landslides during subsequent rainfall.
2. Anthropogenic:
   1. Deforestation: The removal of trees and vegetation makes slopes more susceptible to sliding.
   2. Human Modification: Changes in land use and urbanization can increase the risk of landslides.
   3. Human Activities: Excavation, mining, construction, and irrigation can alter the natural landscape and trigger landslides.
   4. Lack of Drainage: Inadequate drainage systems can lead to water accumulation in the soil, increasing its weight and instability.

Mitigation:

1. Restriction on the construction and other developmental activities.
2. Limiting agriculture to valleys and areas with moderate slopes.
3. Control on the development of large settlements in the high vulnerability zones.
4. Promoting large-scale afforestation programmes.
5. Constructions of bunds to reduce the flow of water.
6. Terrace farming should be encouraged in the northeastern hill states where Jhumming (Slash and Burn/Shifting Cultivation) is still prevalent.
7. Landslide Risk Mitigation Scheme (LRMS):
   • The Scheme envisages financial support for site specific Landslide Mitigation Projects recommended by landslide prone States, covering “disaster prevention strategy, disaster mitigation and R&D in monitoring of critical Landslides” thereby leading to the development of Early Warning System and Capacity Building initiatives.

NDMA Guidelines:

• Do’s
  1. Move away from landslide paths or downstream valleys quickly without wasting time.
  2. Keep drains clean,
  3. Grow more trees that can hold the soil through roots,
  4. Identify areas of rock fall and subsidence of buildings, cracks that indicate landslides and move to safer areas. Even muddy river waters indicate landslides upstream.
  5. Ensure that the toe of slope is not cut, remain protected, don’t uproot trees unless re-vegetation is planned.
  6. Listen for unusual sounds such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together.
  7. Stay alert, awake and active (3A’s) during the impact or probability of impact.
  8. Try to stay with your family and companions.
  9. Check for injured and trapped persons.
  10. Mark path of tracking so that you can’t be lost in the middle of the forest.
• Don’ts
  1. Try to avoid construction and stay in vulnerable areas.
  2. Do not touch or walk over loose material and electrical wiring or poles.
  3. Do not build houses near steep slopes and near drainage paths.
  4. Do not drink contaminated water directly from rivers, springs, wells but rain water if collected directly without is fine.
  5. Do not move an injured person without rendering first aid unless the casualty is in immediate danger.

Way Forward:

India has a high degree of vulnerability towards the occurrence of Landslides. It is therefore not possible for the government to completely stop their occurrence. Although, it can definitely curtail their adverse impact by developing robust resilience in consonance with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030.

Urban Floods: It is caused by the combination of meteorological, hydrological and human factors. Flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times.

• The global Urban Exposure to flooding increased more than four-fold from 16,443 km² in 1985 to 92,233 km² in 2018.
• The most notable growth occurred in Asia (74.1%), followed by Europe (11.6%), Northern America (8.7%), Africa (2.9%), Southern America (2.2%), and Australia (0.5%).
• Floodplains only accounted for 5.5% of the global land areas, 12.6% of the urban expansion occurred in the floodplains from 1985 to 2018.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Housing and Urban Affairs (MHUA)

States Prone:

• Maharashtra: Cities like Mumbai and Pune are known to experience urban floods.
• West Bengal: Kolkata and other low-lying regions.
• Tamil Nadu: Chennai has faced significant urban flooding incidents in recent years.
• Kerala: Cities like Kochi and Thiruvananthapuram are prone to flooding, due to their topography and heavy rains.
• Gujarat: Urban areas in Gujarat, such as Ahmedabad, can experience flooding during heavy rainfall events, as the state is susceptible to both coastal and riverine flooding.
• Assam: Guwahati and other cities in Assam face urban floods due to their location in the flood-prone Brahmaputra River basin.
• Uttar Pradesh: Cities like Lucknow and Kanpur are at risk of urban flooding, often exacerbated by rapid urbanization and poor drainage infrastructure.
• Bihar: Cities along the Ganges River, like Patna, are susceptible to urban flooding during monsoons and heavy rain events.
• Delhi: The national capital region, including Delhi, is at risk due to urban development, inadequate drainage, and the seasonal overflow of the Yamuna River.
• Andhra Pradesh and Telangana: Cities like Hyderabad are prone to urban flooding, with incidents occurring due to heavy rainfall and rapid urban expansion.

Types of Urban Floods:

1. Sewer Backup Flooding: Happens when sewage systems fail, leading to inundation. Example: Bengaluru’s sewer backup flooding in low-lying areas.
2. Infrastructure Failure Flooding: Caused by failures in urban infrastructure, such as dam breaches or canal breaches. Example: The 1979 Machu Dam failure in Gujarat led to urban flooding.

Criteria to Declare:

In India, the criteria to declare an urban flood can vary by state and local authorities, but some common factors considered include:

1. Rainfall Intensity: The amount and intensity of rainfall over a specified period, often exceeding the local drainage capacity.
2. Waterlogging: Extensive waterlogging in urban areas, leading to disruptions in daily life and traffic flow.
3. River Water Levels: Rising river levels that breach their banks and inundate urban areas can trigger a flood declaration.
4. Drainage System Capacity: Overflow or failure of drainage systems, including stormwater drains and sewers.
5. Impact on Infrastructure: Damage to critical infrastructure like roads, bridges, and public utilities due to water accumulation is also assessed.
6. Evacuation Needs: The necessity of evacuating residents from affected areas due to flooding is a significant factor in declaring an urban flood.

Causes:

• Encroachments on the natural drains and the river floodplains.
• Improper disposal of solid waste.
• Dumping of construction debris.
• Sudden release or failure to release water from dams.
• The urban heat island effect has resulted in an increase in rainfall.
• Global climate change results in increased episodes of high-intensity rainfall events. 

Mitigation:

1. Estimation and identification of emergency needs and resources.
2. Preparation of well-designed plans for the entire post-flooding response.
3. Take all necessary measures for planning, capacity building, and other preparedness.
4. It includes the development of identification of Teams for maintaining the drains and roads,
5. Mobilization of resources and taking measures in terms of equipping, providing training, conducting exercises for prevention of water logging/inundation etc.

NDMA Guidelines:

• Battery operated torch
• Extra batteries
• Battery operated radio
• First aid kit and essential medicines
• Emergency food (dry items) and water (packed and sealed)
• Candles and matches in a waterproof container
• Knife
• Chlorine tablets or powdered water
• Thick ropes and cords
• Shoes

Way Forward:

1. Need For Holistic Engagement: Urban floods of this scale cannot be contained by the municipal authorities alone. Floods cannot be managed without concerted and focused investments of energy and resources.
2. The Metropolitan Development Authorities, National Disaster Management Authority, State Revenue and irrigation departments along municipal corporations should be involved in such work together.
3. Developing Sponge Cities: Sponge cities absorb the rainwater, which is then naturally filtered by the soil and allowed to reach urban aquifers.
4. Wetland Policy: There is a need to start paying attention to the management of wetlands by involving local communities.
5. To improve the city’s capacity to absorb water, new porous materials and technologies must be encouraged or mandated across scales. Examples of these technologies are bioswales and retention systems, permeable materials for roads and pavement, drainage systems that allow stormwater to trickle into the ground, green roofs, and harvesting systems in buildings.

The inundation of land and human settlements by the rise of water in the channels and its spill-over presents the condition of flooding.

• Out of the total geographical area of 329 million hectares (MHA), more than 40 MHA are flood-prone.
• Floods affect an average area of around 7.5 million hectares per year.
• On average, 75 lakh hectares of land are affected every year, 1600 lives are lost, and the damage caused to crops, houses, and public utilities is Rs.1805 crores.

Regions Prone to Flooding in India:

1. The Brahmaputra River Region: This region consists of the rivers Brahmaputra and Barak and their tributaries, and covers the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura, Nagaland, Sikkim and the northern parts of West Bengal.
2. The Ganga River Region: It covers the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Jharkhand, Bihar, south and central parts of West Bengal, Punjab, parts of Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Delhi.
3. The North-West River Region: The main rivers in this region are the Indus, Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum. This region covers the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab and parts of Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan.
4. The Central and Deccan India: Important rivers in this region are the Narmada, Tapi, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery.

Nodal Ministry: Min. of Jal Shakti (MOJS)

Types of Floods:

1. Riverine Floods: Result from overflowing rivers or streams. Example: Ganga-Brahmaputra Delta in East India experiences annual riverine flooding during the monsoon.
2. Flash Floods: Rapid-onset floods often caused by heavy rainfall or dam breaks. Example: Uttarakhand Flash Floods in 2013, triggered by heavy rains and glacial lake outburst.
3. Coastal Floods: Occur along coastlines due to storms, cyclones, or high tides. Example: Coastal areas of West Bengal and Bangladesh faced flooding during Cyclone Amphan in 2020.
4. Pluvial Floods: Caused by excessive rainfall, leading to localized flooding. Example: Urban areas like Chennai and Bangalore face pluvial flooding during heavy rains.
5. Dam or Levee Break Floods: Result from the failure of dams or levees. Example: The Machu Dam failure in Gujarat in 1979 led to significant flooding.

Criteria to Declare:

The Indian government typically declares a flood based on specific criteria that may vary slightly from state to state. However, some common criteria for declaring a flood in India include:

1. Rainfall Thresholds: When heavy and sustained rainfall exceeds certain predefined thresholds for a particular region or river basin.
2. River Water Levels: water levels in rivers or reservoirs rise significantly and pose a threat to communities downstream,
3. Dam Releases: The release of water to maintain their structural integrity can lead to downstream flooding.
4. Weather Warnings: Based on weather warnings from meteorological agencies, such as the India Meteorological Department (IMD), which predict heavy rainfall.
5. Impact Assessment: Assessment of rising water levels on communities, infrastructure, and agriculture done by authorities.

Causes: Floods can also be caused due to a storm surge (in the coastal areas), high intensity rainfall for a considerably longer time period, melting of ice and snow, reduction in the infiltration rate and presence of eroded material in the water due to higher rate of soil erosion.

Mitigation:

1. Early Warning Systems: India has an extensive network of meteorological and hydrological stations to monitor rainfall and river levels.
2. River Basin Planning: Regulate water flow, reduce siltation, and control flooding which includes the construction of dams, reservoirs, and embankments.
3. Floodplain Zoning: Identify and demarcate flood-prone areas, and restrict or regulate construction and development in these zones.
4. Flood Forecasting and Modeling: Utilize advanced technologies and modeling techniques to predict and analyze floods, enabling more effective response planning.
5. Embankments and Flood Control Structures: Construct and maintain flood control structures such as embankments, levees, and flood walls to protect vulnerable areas.
6. Climate Change Adaptation: Consider the potential impacts of climate change on flooding patterns and incorporate adaptive strategies into flood mitigation plans.
7. International Collaboration: Collaborate with neighboring countries, especially in the case of transboundary rivers, to share data and coordinate flood management efforts.
8. River Training and Dredging: Undertake River training and dredging projects to improve the flow of rivers and reduce the risk of flooding.

NDMA Guideline:

• Battery operated torch
• Extra batteries
• Battery operated radio
• First aid kit and essential medicines
• Emergency food (dry items) and water (packed and sealed)
• Candles and matches in a waterproof container
• Knife
• Chlorine tablets or powdered water
• Thick ropes and cords

Way Forward:

• The entire suite of measures structural and non-structural, an appropriate mix of grey, blue, and green infrastructure needs to be considered for flood management.
• Mindsets needing changing flood flows should be seen as a resource to be conserved for subsequent use and water security.
• A river basin approach should be adopted for flood management while taking care of the environment.
• It is prudent we upgrade the hydro infrastructure in the country now so that the tools to manage increased variabilities are available in time.

A type of geological event near an opening/vent in the Earth’s surface including volcanic eruptions of lava, ash, hot vapour, gas, and pyroclastic material.

• Ash fall 
• Lahar – Hot or cold mixture of earthen material flowing on the slope of a volcano either during or between volcanic eruptions
• Lava Flow
• Pyroclastic Flow – Extremely hot gases, ash, and
• other materials of more than 1,000 degrees Celsius that rapidly flow down the flank of a volcano (more than 700 km/h) during an eruption. 

• There are about 1500 potentially active volcanoes worldwide. 
• Volcanic activities and wildfires affected 6.2 million people and caused nearly 2400 deaths between 1998-2017.

Regions Prone to Volcanic eruptions: Barren island (A&N), Narcondam (Andaman Sea), Deccan trap in Deccan plateau, Baratang (Andaman Island), Dhinodhar hills (Gujarat), Dhosi hills (Aravali mountains), Tosham hills (Haryana).Nodal Ministry: Min. of Earth Sciences (MOES)

Types of Volcanic Eruptions:

1. Stratovolcanoes: Steep-sided with explosive eruptions. Example: Mount St. Helens.
2. Shield Volcanoes: Broad and gently sloping with non-explosive eruptions. Example: Mauna Loa.
3. Cinder Cone Volcanoes: Small, steep-sided with ash and cinder eruptions. Example: Paricutin.
4. Caldera Volcanoes: Large, basin-like depressions from explosive eruptions. Example: Yellowstone Caldera.
5. Lava Domes: Bulbous mounds from slow-moving lava. Example: Novarupta Dome.
6. Submarine Volcanoes: Form underwater. Example: Lo’ihi (Hawaii).
7. Fissure Volcanoes: Erupt along cracks. Example: Laki (Iceland).
8. Super-volcanoes: Erupt cataclysmically. Example: Yellowstone (potential supervolcano).

Criteria to Declare:

Central or State authorities declare the area as volcanically active based on these parameters:

1. Volcanic Activity: This includes volcanic eruptions, lava flows, ash emissions, and any other signs of volcanic unrest.
2. Geological Evidence: The presence of volcanic rocks, craters, calderas, lava domes, or volcanic vents features strong evidence of volcanic origin.
3. Seismic Activity: Monitoring seismic activity, including volcanic earthquakes and tremors, is crucial.
4. Gas Emissions: Measuring the composition and quantity of (SO2) or carbon dioxide (CO2), can provide insights into volcanic activity and potential hazards.
5. Ground Deformation: Detected through techniques like GPS and satellite-based interferometry, can indicate magma movement.
6. Historical Records: Historical records of past eruptions, including eyewitness accounts, written records, and geological studies, are important for assessing a volcano’s history and potential future behavior.
7. Remote Sensing: Used to monitor changes in surface temperature, volcanic ash plumes, and ground deformation.

Causes:

1. Underwater Earthquakes: When tectonic plates at subduction zones converge, they suddenly displace a massive amount of water, generating a tsunami.
2. Volcanic Eruptions: The expulsion of magma and gas from a volcano can create a sudden and forceful displacement.
3. Landslides: Landslides from coastal cliffs or mountains, can displace a significant amount of water upon impact, generating a tsunami.
4. Meteorite Impacts: Although rare, The energy released from such an impact can create powerful waves.
5. Glacial Calving: When large pieces of ice break off from glaciers and fall into the ocean, they can displace water and generate small tsunamis, known as “glacial tsunamis.”
6. Fault Zones: Faults that lie beneath the ocean can slip suddenly, displacing seawater and causing a tsunami.

Mitigation:

India had a set of official guidelines primarily related to the Barren Island volcano in the Andaman Sea. These guidelines were primarily managed by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) and the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD).

1. Monitoring and Early Warning: Continuous monitoring of volcanic activity using seismic instruments, gas analyzers, and satellite technology to detect signs of volcanic unrest.
2. Hazard Zonation: Establishment of hazard zones based on the type and potential impact.
3. Evacuation Plans: Development of evacuation plans and routes for nearby communities. Regular drills and training exercises to ensure preparedness.
4. Public Awareness and Education: Educate local communities about volcanic hazards and safety measures.
5. Coordination: Coordination between the GSI, IMD, local administration, and disaster management authorities to ensure minimal harm caused.
6. Emergency Response: Prepositioning of emergency supplies, medical teams, stockpiling food, water, medicines, and setting up emergency shelters.