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  • Major Rivers of India and the World and Mountain Ranges and Lakes

     

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    01 Sept 2021

    Major Rivers in India

    Indus River System

    Indus Ancient name  Sindhu Origin  Bokharchu Glacier, Near Mansarovar In Tibet, Called Singi Khamban / Lion’s mouth Enters In India through Ladakh, flows only in J &K Enters Pak through hairpin bend of Nanga Parbat Finally Discharges in Arabian Sea Flows approx. ( 709 / 2880 ) Km in India India uses 20 % of its water by Indo  Pak water treaty of 1960
    ShyokOriginates from Rimo Glacier Known as river of death flows through Ladakh in India A tributary of the Indus River
    JhelumAncient name  Vitasta Origin  Verinag Spring (Kashmir) Tributary of Indus flows only in J &K Flows Northward to Wular Lake Cut through the gorge in Pir- Panjal range to reach Muzzafarabad (POK)
    Indus River System
    ChenabAncient name  Akshani / Iskmati Origin  Bara Lacha Pass (Himachal) Known as chandra-bhaga in Himachal Chandra River  Water flowing south from the pass Bhaga River      Water Flowing north from the pass Flows Northward & parallel to Pir –Panjal Range for some distance Cut through gorge in Pir – Panjal & Turns southward Largest tributary of Indus, Flows through Himachal & J & K Famous Projects  Duhasti, Baglihar & Salal hydroelectric project
    RaviAncient name  Purushni Origin  Kullu hills near Rohtang Pass (Himachal) Tributary of Chenab Smallest of 5 rivers Flows through Indo – Pak boundary Flows northward b/w Pir – Panjal & Dhauladhar Ranges Cut a gorge through Dhauladhar range & flows southward
    BeasAncient name  Vipasha Origin  Beas kund near Rohtang Pass, Himachal Tributary of Satluj Only river flowing entirely in India Runs southwardCut a deep gorge in Dhauladhar & turns west to meet Satluj near Harike (Punjab) Famous Project  Pong Dam
    SutlujAncient name  Shatadru Origin  Rakas lake, Tibet, near Mansarovar Enter Himachal at Shipki La Pass Collects water from Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum & Beas to join Indus near Mithalkot (Pak) Famous Projects  Naptha Jhakri Project & Bhakra Nagal Dam with Govind Sagar Reservoir

    Ganga River System

    • Origin  As Bhagirathi from Gangotri Glacier (Uttarkashi – Uttarakhand)
    • Alakananda unites with Bhagirathi at DevprayagUttarakhand  Henceforth known as Ganga
    • Passing through Rishikesh, it debounches in plains of Haridwar
    • From Haridwar, it flows Southward to reach Allahabad where it joins the Yamuna
    • Near Rajmahal Hills, it turns southeast & bifurcate at Farraka into Hoogly (Kolkata) & Padma (BD)
    • At Bangladesh, Ganga merges with Brahmputra (Known as Jamuna in Bangladesh) at Goalundo Ghats
    • Mixture is known as Padma River
    • Then it merges with Meghna & finally falls in the Bay of Bengal
    • Meghna  Known as Barack river in India
    • Major tributaries → Yamuna, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi, Son & Punpun
    India River System
    GhagharaOrigin  Bharchachungar Glacier (Rakas lake) near Mansarovar Joins Ganga at Chhapr. Known as Manchu or Karnali in Nepal. Known as Saryu or Ghaghra in UP Perennial river Major tributaries  Sarda & Rakti
    GandakOrigin  Sino – Nepal Boundary (Dhaulagiri range) Known as Kalyani in Nepal Major River of Nepal Joins Ganga at Sonpur, Bihar
    KosiOrigin  Gosainath peak (Tibet) Merges with river Ganga at Bhagalpur (Bihar) Consists of 7 streams & known as Saptakoshi in Nepal Main stream  Arun, Tamur & Sun Koshi Formerly Known as Sorrow of Bihar Major Projects  Kusha Dam
    SonOrigin  Amarkantak Plateau (Near north of origin of Narmada) Flows through Kaimur Range to meet Ganga at Patna
    GomtiOriginates from Gomat Taal / Fulhaar jheel – Pilibhit A tributary of Ganga
    YamunaOrigin  Yamunotri Glacier (Uttarkashi – Uttarakhand) Largest Tributary of Ganga After cutting deep gorge across Shivalik, it enters into plains near Tajewala Flows southward up to Agra & then turns southeast to meet Ganga at Allahabad Famous tributaries  Chambal, Sind, Betwa & Ken
    BetwaMajor Tributaries  Tributary of Yamuna, rises from Vindhya range, MP Major Projects       → Matatila dam & Rajghat dam
    KenRises from Kaimur hills in Satna (Madhya Pradesh), a tributary of Yamuna Famous for its Shajar stone &  Raneh waterfalls
    ChambalOrigin  Vindhya Range (Mhow, MP) Passes through Kota & Dhaulpur (Rajasthan) Merge with Yamuna at Etawah (UP) forms boundary between Rajasthan & MP Major tributaries        Kali Sindh, Parvati & Banas Main Power Projects → Gandhisagar, Rana Pratap Sagar & Jawahar Sagar
    BanasOriginate from eastern slopes of Aravali Tributary of Chambal
    Damodar Origin  Eastern part of Chhota Nagpur Plateu Meets Hoogli at Falta Power Projects  Talaiya, Maithan, Barakar & Panchet

    Brahmaputra River System

    • Origin  Chemayungdung Glacier (Kailash Range, Tibet)
    • In Tibet, known as TSANG – PO
    • In China, known as YARLUNG ZANBO
    • Forms grand canyon in Tibet
    • Turns southward near Namcha – Barwa
    • Enters Arunachal Pradesh as Dihang River at Sadiya, emerging from the mountains
    • Joined by Dibang river from the north & Lohit river from the south  Known as Brahamputra
    • Turns at Dhubri to enter into Bangladesh
    • After joining Teesta, known as Jamuna in BD
    • Joins Ganga & Megna  Merges to BOB.
    • Forms many river island of which Majuli is world 2nd largest one
    • Major tributaries → Dihang, Lohit, Subansiri, Teesta, Meghna (Barack in Assam), Manas
    India River System
    TeestaMajor tributary of Brahmaputra Rises from Sikkim Known as lifeline of Sikkim
    LohitTributary of Brahmaputra Flows through Arunachal Pradesh Along with river, Dihang merges into Brahmaputra, at Sadia town (Arunachal Pradesh)

    Peninsular Rivers India – Flowing East to West

    LuniDesertic river, also known as the Sagarmati Rises from the western slopes of the Aravalli Range near Ajmer Ends in the marshy lands of Rann of Kutch in Gujarat Inspite of high salinity, it is a major river in region Serves as a primary source of irrigation
    SabarmatiRises from Dhebar lake in Aravalli Range of the Udaipur (Rajasthan) Flow Route: Udaipur  Gulf of Khambat  Arabian Sea via Estuary
    MahiRises from Vindhya range (MP) flows through MP, Rajasthan & Gujrat & drains in Gulf of Cambay Famous Projects → Banswara Dam & Kadana dam
    Peninsular Indian Rivers
    NarmadaOrigin  Amarkantak, Shahdol, MP Also known as Rewa River Flows through rift valley of Vindhya & Satpura Flow Route: MP  Bharuch (Gujrat)  Gulf of Khambat (Gujrat)  Arabian Sea via Estuary Longest among all east to west flowing rivers Known as Life line of MP Forms Duandhar falls at Jabalpur Only tributary  Hiran River Aliabet  Largest Island in Estuary Famous projects →Sardar Sarovar Dam, Maheshwar Dam, Indira Gandhi Sagar Dam
    TawaRises in the Satpura Range of Betul (MP) Narmada’s longest tributary
    TapiOrigin  Mahadev hills, Satpura range, Betul district, MP Flow Route: MP    Maharashtra  Gulf of Khambat or Cambay  Arabian Sea via Estuary Famous projects → Kakrapar Dam & Ukai Dam
    PeriyarRises from Western Ghats in Kerala Flows towards west & drains in Arabian Sea via an estuary

    Peninsular Rivers India – Flowing West to East

    MahanadiOrigin → Dandakaranya Hills, Raipur Flow Route: Chhattisgarh  Orissa  EGs  BOB Famous Project : Hirakund Dam
    GodavariOrigin  Triambakeshwar Plateau, Nashik, WGs Largest Peninsular River Known as Dakshina / Vriddha Ganga Flow Route: Nashik   Andhra Pradesh  BOB Famous Tributaries  Penganga, Sabri, Wardha & Indravati Famous Projects       Poochampad,  Jayakwadi, Polavaram
    PengangaRises from Ajanta hills (Maharashtra) a tributary of River Wardha which finally merges into Godavari
    South Indian Rivers
    KrishnaOrigin → Mahabaleshwar, Maharashtra, WGs Flow Route: Maharashtra  Andhra Pradesh  BOB Famous Projects → Koyna, Tugrabhdra, Srisailam & Nagarjuna Sagar Dam
    Tungabhadraa major tributary of Krishna Rises from Western Ghats
    BhimaRises from Balaghat range (Maharashtra) Tributary of Krishna
    KaveriOrigin  Brahamgiri hills, Karnataka, WGs Flow Route: Karnataka  Kaveripatnam (TN) BOB Perrenial River Forms Shivasundaram Waterfalls Famous projects  Krishnaraja Sagar & Mettur
    PennerRises from Karnataka Flows b/w Krishna & Kaveri Drains into BOB
    VaigaiRises from Palni hills (TN) A seasonal river flows through TN Drains in Gulf of Mannar

    Important Rivers of the World

    Sr. No.RIVERLOCATIONDESCRIPTION
    1.River AmazonSouth AmericaIt is the second longest river which flows through Peru, Columbia, Brazil and drains into the Atlantic Ocean.
    2.River MississippiNorth AmericaIt forms a bird-foot like a delta at the Gulf of Mexico, River Missouri is an important tributary of it.
    3.River St. LawrenceNorth AmericaIt drains into Gulf of St. Lawrence which is an important transport corridor of North America.
    4.River OrangeSouth AfricaLongest river of South Africa and contains diamond beds along its mouth.
    5.River CongoAfricaThis river crosses the equator twice and drains into the south Atlantic Ocean.
    6.River NileAfricaIt is the longest river in the world, originates near Lake Victoria and drains in the Mediterranean Sea.
    7.River RhineWestern EuropeIt flows through Germany and Netherlands. It is one of the busiest waterways of Europe.
    8.River DanubeEuropeIt passes through Germany, Hungary, Austria, Slovakia, Serbia, Romania and drains into the Black Sea.
    9.River VolgaEurope, RussiaIt is the longest river in Europe, it drains into the Caspian Sea.
    10.River TigrisTurkey, IraqCities like Mosul, Baghdad, Basra were located along its banks and it drains into the Gulf of Persia.
    11.River EuphratesTurkey, Syria, IraqMain source of water for Syria. It drains into the Persian Gulf.
    12.River IrrawaddyMyanmarDrains into Gulf of Martaban
    13.River MekongChina, Laos, Cambodia, VietnamIt is also called ‘Danube of the east’, and it merges with south china sea.
    14.River YangtzeChinaIt originates from the Tibetan plateau and ends in east china sea. It is the longest river in China.

    Important Lakes of the World

    Sr. No.NAMELOCATIONFACTS
    1.Titicaca lakeSouth AmericaIt is the highest navigable lake in the world located in the Andes mountains.
    2.Great bear lakeCanada, North AmericaIt is a big glaciated lake in Canada. The Eskimos of Canada camp here during the summer season.
    3.Great lakesNorth AmericaThis comprises of five large lakes of North America such as Lake Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, Ontario. Lake Superior is the second largest lake in the world.
    4.Lake MalawiCentral AfricaIt is the third-largest lake of Africa and borders Tanzania, Mozambique.
    5.Lake TanganyikaEast AfricaIt is the deepest and second largest lake of Africa.
    6.Lake VictoriaAfricaThe largest river of Africa and passes through the equator.
    7.Lake KainjiAfricaLargest manmade lake of Africa, used for irrigation purposes.
    8.Dead seaWest AsiaIt is bordered by Jordan in the east and Palestine, Israel in the west. It is known for its high salinity.
    9.Aral SeaCentral AsiaLocated between Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. It is shrinking rapidly in recent years.
    10.Lake BaikalRussiaIt is the largest freshwater lake in Asia and the deepest in the world.
    11.Caspian SeaEurasiaIt is the largest lake in the world and is surrounded by Russia, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Iran, and Azerbaijan.

    Important Mountain Ranges and Peaks of the Worlds

    Sr. No.Mountain RangeImportant/Highest PeaksLocationDescription
    1.Rocky MountainsMt. Elbert (highest peak in the Rockies)North AmericaIt is one of the longest fold mountains in the world and extends from Canada to the Western US (New Mexico State).
    2.Appalachian MountainsMt. Mitchell, North Carolina, US (highest peak of Appalachian Mountains)North AmericaIt is a fold mountain rich in mineral resources.
    3.AlpsMont Blanc (French –Italian border)EuropeIt is a folded mountain and source for rivers like Danube, Rhine, etc.
    4.Sierra NevadaMt. WhitneyCalifornia, USAHabitat for many Red Indian tribes
    5.Alaska RangeMt. McKinleyNorth AmericaMt. McKinley highest peak in North America
    6.Altai MountainsBelukha mountainCentral AsiaYoung folded mountain which extends from Kazakhstan to northern China.
    7.Andes MountainsMt. AconcaguaSouth AmericaLongest mountain chain in the world
    8.Atlas MountainsMt. ToubkalNorthwestern AfricaYoung fold mountain spreading over Morocco and Tunisia.
    9.Drakensberg MountainsMt. LesothoSouth AfricaYoung folded mountain
    10.Caucasus MountainMt. ElbrusEuropeLocated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea
    11.Ural MountainsMt. NarodnayaRussiaThis mountain range act as a boundary between Europe and Asia.
    12.Hindukush MountainsMt. Trich MirPakistan and AfghanistanFolded mountain with rugged topography which makes it difficult for transportation.
    13.HimalayasMt. EverestAsiaYoung fold mountains in Asia which separate Indian sub-continent from the Asian plains
    14.Arakan YomaMt. Kennedy peakMyanmarIt extends from north to south direction. Shifting cultivation is practised.
    15.Kunlun MountainsMt. MuztagNorth of Tibetan plateau and western ChinaIt is one of the young folded mountains.
    16.VosgesMt. Grand BallonEastern France, EuropeFamous for the cultivation of grapes and manufacture of wines.
    17.Great Dividing RangeMt. KosciuszkoAustraliaThis range is the source for the rivers Darling and Murray.

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  • Only 40 Days Left || Registrations to Close Soon || Conquer UPPCS Prelims 2021 Program @ Civilsdaily || Mentored by UPPSC Toppers || Seats only for First 50 Students

    Click Below to Watch a Complete Strategy Video

    https://youtu.be/-L2eBDdEamY

    Civilsdaily is bringing a 30 days revision and guidance program for conquering UPPCS Prelims 2021. With the increased focus that UPPCS has been getting in the last couple of years, it’s imperative that aspirants get expert guidance in the trickiest part of the whole process and this program focuses on that aspect.

    Importance of Prelims in UPPCS:

    • A lot has changed since UPPSC bought in changes in its examination pattern for Uttar Pradesh Combined State/Upper Subordinate Exam or popularly known as the UPPCS examination. 
    • The syllabus has changed, the pattern for Mains examination as well as interview weighatge has changed. Because of the above-mentioned changes, a lot many aspirants of UPSC Civil Services, as well as various State PSC’s Examinations, are also vying for UPPCS examinations these days. 
    • But what has remained constant is the UPPCS Preliminary Examination. So far it is still a concoction of old age UPPCS Prelims with a hint of tadka of few changes!!!

    How to easily crack UPPCS Prelims in 30 days?

    • Civilsdaily is bringing in a 30 days program for all those serious aspirants who have a solid background in UPSC Prelims but are still finding their feet in the UPPCS prelims examinations. 
    • The program will be headed by Parth Sir and Shweta Mam (Rank 22 in UPPCS 2019) and it will focus on those important elements which are a must for clearing UPPCS Prelims Examination. 
    • Parth Sir has given 4 UPPCS Mains and 2 Interviews and has scored one of the highest marks in the UPPCS 2018 Interviews. He achieved all this by altering his UPSC Preparation a bit and since then, he has been guiding students in UPPCS Preparations with great success. 
    • Shweta Mam has been a true warrior and apart from giving UPSC Interviews multiple times, she is rank 22 in UPPCS 2019 Examination.

    We need to prepare with a tweaked trajectory of what we were doing for UPSC Prelims and we are good to go. What are those trajectories? 

    1. Focus on factual elements in Current Affairs (we focus on Analytical elements in UPSC Prelims);
    2. keep a tab on Miscellaneous Section (we totally skip it in UPSC Prelims) and;
    3. prepare Static Subjects keeping the demand of the last 5 years of UPPCS Prelims (Sources for UPSC Prelims remains the same but their reading becomes different for UPPCS Prelims) in mind;
    4. and give many mock tests for your STAR Preparation (Well this element remains the same for all examinations!!!)

    What will the program entail in the next 30 days?

    • Parth Sir and Shweta Mam will take care of all these elements in these 30 days. 
    • We will provide you with 15 months of Current Affairs (May 2020- August 2021) which are prepared keeping UPPCS Prelims 2021 in mind. Parth Sir and Shweta Mam have curated this content.
    • There will be 10 Mock Tests with quality as good as UPPCS Prelims Question Paper. 
    • It will help you in aligning your preparation with the real UPPCS Prelims Examination. 
    • We will provide you with certain static subject notes that are curated for last-minute revision for the UPPCS Prelims examination. 
    • There will be doubt resolution as well as discussions with Parth sir and Shweta mam for micro preparation strategies on static subjects as well most important themes for the upcoming UPPCS Prelims 2021 and a Google Meet session after every test for macro preparation strategy.
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    The program starts on the 5th of September and will go on till the 6th of October. The timeline of the tests schedule is given below. To join the program and more details, click on the link below. 

    Date of TestFLTTopics
    5th Sept 2021Government Schemes and Current AffairsThis test will cover important schemes, policies and programs of the Central government as well as the Uttar Pradesh Government.
    The current affairs will cover May 2020 till July 2020.
    9th Sept 2021Miscellaneous and Current AffairsThis test will cover National, International organisations, Indices, Reports, Surveys, Census, Urbanisation data, Crop and its varieties and diseases, Data on Agriculture and Mineral production, Animal census etc.
    The current affairs will cover August 2020 till October 2020.
    12th Sept 2021Uttar Pradesh and Current AffairsThis test will cover Uttar Pradesh GK. The history, economy, culture, polity and geography of Uttar Pradesh will be covered through this test.
    The current affairs will cover November 2020 till January 2021.
    16th Sept 2021Economic Survey, India Year Book, Budget and Current AffairsThis test will cover the Union Budget as well as the Uttar Pradesh Budget of 2021-2022. Other parts can be covered through the Economic Survey and India Year Book.
    The current affairs will cover February 2021 till April 2021.
    19th Sept 2021Full-Length Test -1Full Syllabus
    23rd Sept 2021Full-Length Test -2Full Syllabus
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    30th Sept 2021Full-Length Test -4Full Syllabus
    3rd Oct 2021Full-Length Test -5Full SyllabusThe current affairs will cover May 2021 and June 2021.
    6th Oct 2021Full-Length Test -6Full SyllabusThe current affairs will cover July 2021 till Mid September 2021.
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  • [RSTV Archive] Judiciary & Artificial Intelligence

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    The Supreme Court’s Artificial Intelligence Committee a few months back in April has launched its Artificial Intelligence portal SUPACE.

    What is SUPACE?

    • SUPACE is an acronym for Supreme Court Portal for Assistance in Courts Efficiency.
    • It is a blend of human and artificial intelligence, and as clarified by Bobde, will not be used in decision-making.
    • The role of AI will be limited to the collection and analysis of data.
    • The courts fully retains the autonomy and the discretion of the judge in deciding the case, though at a much, much faster pace because of the readiness with which the information is made available by the AI.

    Salient features of SUPACE

    • SUPACE facts and arguments relevant to judging a particular case are intelligently presented in a matter of seconds—done manually, this would have taken months—adjudication could become that much faster.
    • SUPACE is customizable, that is, it can behave uniquely like an individual user, learning from and mirroring user behaviour; to illustrate, imagine a system that learns to glean relevant data and present it in a structure that a judge/legal researcher finds easy to comprehend or present.
    • As it is with all AI, as the system ‘learns’, efficiency leaps exponentially.
    • The SUPACE system also includes a chatbot that can give the overview of a case, respond to elementary questions, while switching between documents and prompting further questions to sharpen the user’s understanding of a case.

    Need for AI in Judiciary

    • India’s judiciary is mired in backlogs.
    • According to the data available with the National Judicial Data Grid, around 3.81 crore cases are pending in India and more than one lakh cases have been pending for more than 30 years.

    Other such initiatives

    • SCI-Interact: In 2020, the Supreme Court developed a software called, SCI-Interact, to make all its 17 benches paperless. This software helps judges access files, annexures to petitions and make notes on computers.
    • LIMBS: Earlier, the Department of Legal Affairs has introduced a web-based application called LIMBS or Legal Information Management & Briefing System. The idea is to track the entire life cycle of a case efficiently.
    • SUVAAS: In November 2019, the Apex Court launched an indigenously engineered neural translation tool, SUVAAS, to translate judicial orders and rulings from English to vernacular languages faster and efficiently.

    Global IT solutions in Judiciary

    • The criminal justice system of the US uses algorithms to estimate the risks of habitual offence.
    • Many courts in the country are also actively embracing online dispute resolution (ODR) initiatives.
    • Unsurprisingly, China has also been adopting AI in the judiciary. The country reportedly has more than 100 robots in courts to recover case histories.

    Applications of AI in Judiciary

    • AI could be used in cases of a repetitive nature that fit a strict pattern such as bouncing of cheques, civil violations or drunk driving.
    • Pre-judicial work, such as case management, random allocation of matters to benches, case-law indexing and analysis, administrative work linked to a court can lean on AI to streamline and reduce pendency.
    • Judging involves human emotions too. No scientific tool has any moral issue attached to it, said Justice Srikrishna who helmed the study for India’s data protection policy.
    • AI has not been programmed to delve into human emotions.

    Debate over SUPACE

    • SUPACE has opened up a debate of sorts on how much AI can be used to dispense justice.
    • The core job of a judge is judging. That cannot be outsourced, said former Supreme Court judge B N Srikrishna.
    • Nuances of judging a person’s state of mind are beyond a bot, said jurists.
    • Judicial work cannot be handed over to a machine, even one with AI or programmed to read and understand law, said Justice Srikrishna.

    Limitations of SUPACE

    • For now, in India, SUPACE will be used for administrative purposes and not decision making.
    • Automated fairness is not possible to be achieved because ML-based systems do not know how to explain or digest the information they learn.
    • A mere idealistic approach to estimate things would not take the initiative further.

    Possible applications of SUPACE

    • AI has abilities to identify fact patterns easily and compare them with precedents.
    • Traffic violations and drunken driving cases or some civic violations can be dealt with by AI.

    Way forward

    • The ethical and responsible use of AI and ML for the advancement of efficiency enhancing can be increasingly embedded in legal and judicial processes.
    • The Supreme Court has laid a strong foundation basis which efficiency enhancement can be accelerated across functional processes.
    • This is one of the key reasons why justice delivery in India is poised for transformative change.

    Conclusion

    • SUPACE will produce results customized to the need of the case and the way the judge thinks.
    • This will be time-saving. It will help the judiciary and the court in reducing delays and pendency of cases.
    • AI will present a more streamlined, cost-effective and time-bound means to the fundamental right of access to justice.
    • It will make the service delivery mechanism transparent and cost-efficient.
  • Streak Daily Compilation of Questions & Videos – Aug 31, 2021

    Maintaining consistency is one of the biggest issues faced by IAS Aspirants. Streak’s initiative is to help Aspirants in their day-to-day preparation. You can follow the monthly, weekly, and daily timetables and continue this streak until you find yourself on the final list.

    Please register for Streak Initiative (free) through this link:- https://www.civilsdaily.com/course/streak-daily-initiative/

    You will get following study material:-

    1. Questions (PDF).
    2. RSTV/Yojana monthly notes (PDF).
    3. Burning issue (PDF).
    4. Subject specific (PDF).
    5. Mentor’s phone call for support & encouragement.

    _____________________________________________

    UPSC Daily Study Plan For 2021 and 2022 || STREAK – by Ravi Ranjan

    UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Most Probable Questions – by Sukanya Rana

    Q1) Nitrogen fixation is done naturally by

    1. Azotobacter and anaerobic clostridium
    2. Rhizobium
    3. Anabaena and spirulina
    4. lightning 

    Pick the correct option:

    A. 1 and 2

    B. 1, 2 and 3

    C. 2 and 4 only

    D. 1, 2, 3 and 4

    Q2) Consider the following statements:

    1. A. Boreal Forest is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces, and larches.
    2. B. The taiga is the world’s largest land biome.
    3. C. Soils in boreal forests are usually fertile due to high decomposition activity.
    4. D. The productivity and community stability of boreal forest is low.

    Select the correct option:

    A. 1, 2, 3

    B. 1, 2, 4

    C. 1, 3, 4

    D. 2, 3, 4

    Q3) Consider the following statements with respect to Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) 

    1. It is globally identified as a tool for sustainable and integrated ocean management. 
    2. It will be implemented by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) through National Centre for Coastal Research (NCCR) for India. 
    3. In its primary phase, India will conduct marine spatial planning in Lakshadweep and Puducherry in cooperation with Russia. 

    Which of the statements given above are correct? 

    A. 1 and 2 only 

    B. 1 and 3 only 

    C. 2 and 3 only 

    D. 1, 2 and 3

    Q4) Consider the following statements with respect to Platypus

    1. It is one of the five species of monotremes, the only mammals that lay eggs instead of giving birth to young ones. 
    2. It is endemic to South America, including Costa Rica , where it is classified as an vulnerable species 

    Which of the statement(s) given above is/are incorrect? 

    A. 1 only 

    B. 2 only 

    C. Both 1 and 2 

    D. Neither 1 nor 2

    Q5) Consider the following statements with respect to Diatom Test 

    1. Diatoms are photosynthesizing algae which are found almost anywhere moist. 
    2. It is used to confirm the cause of death by drowning. 
    3. The test is considered positive only when the number of diatoms recovered from the body is more than a minimal established limit. 

    Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

    A. 1 only 

    B. 1 and 2 only 

    C. 2 and 3 only 

    D. 1, 2 and 3

    UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Most Probable Questions on Environment & Ecology – by Santosh Gupta

    Q1) Identify the correct statement/s in context to the arctic tundra. 

    1. The plants in the arctic tundra have a long life. 
    2. Mammals here have small body size to avoid the loss of heat from the surface. 
    3. Insects in this region have short life cycles.
    4. All mammals go into hibernation in winter to avoid cold

    Which of the above statements are true?

    A. 1, 2 and4

    B. 1, 2 and 3 

    C. 1 and 3 only

    D. All of them 

    Q2) Which of the following statement/s is/are correct with respect to boreal forest? 

    1. It is characterized by evergreen plant species. 
    2. These forests are found in regions with high rainfall, long summers and short winters. 
    3. The soils found here are alkaline in nature.

    Which of the above statements is/are true?

    A. 1 and 2 

    B. 2 and 3

    C. 1 only

    D. All of them

    Q3. Identify the correct statement/s in context to estuaries. 

    1. They are located where the river meets the sea. 
    2. They act as a shelter for animals. 
    3. Estuaries are Ecotone

    Which of the above statements are true?

    A. 1 and 2 

    B. 2 and 3

    C. 1 only

    D. All of them

    Q4) Consider the following statements in context to coral reefs. 

    1. They occur near the source of freshwater, which is nutrient rich. 
    2. The corals are very fast growing colonies of animals. 
    3. They are referred to as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans’. 

    Select the correct code from the codes given below.

    Which of the above statements are true?

    A. 1 and 2 

    B. 2 and 3

    C. 1  and 3 only

    D. All of them

    Q5) Consider the following statements about sea weeds and sea grasses

    1. Sea grasses  are specialised marine flowering plants , while Seaweeds are a type of macroalgae
    2. While sea grasses are attached to the bottom, sea weeds are floating on the surface. 
    3. Both are source of carbon sink

    Which of the above statements are true?

    A. 1 and 2 only

    B. 2 and 3 only

    C. 1 and 3 only

    D. All of them

    Daily Dose: Complete Snapshots of Everyday News – by Shweta Mishra

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  • Physiographic Divisions of India

     

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    31 Aug 2021

    Let’s begin with the first physiographic division. It consists of:

    • THE HIMALAYAS, and
    • The Northeastern hills (Purvanchal).

    A) The Himalayas:

    The Himalayas are the highest and longest of all young fold mountains of the world. The Pamir, known as the roof of the world, connects the Himalayas with the high ranges of Central Asia.

    Let’s begin by understanding how the Himalayas came into being:

    About 40 to 50 million years ago, two large landmasses, India and Eurasia, driven by plate movement, collided. As a result, the sediments accumulated in Tethys Sea (brought by rivers) were compressed, squeezed and series of folds were formed, one behind the other, giving birth to folded mountains of the Himalayas.

    Recent studies show that India is still moving northwards at the rate of 5cm/year and crashing into the rest of Asia, thereby constantly increasing the height of Himalayas.

    The North-South division of the Himalayas

    The Himalayas consist of a series of parallel mountain ranges:

    1. The Greater Himalayan range, which includes:
      • The Great Himalayas(Himadri), and
      • The Trans-Himalayan range
    2. The Lesser Himalayas (or Himachal), and
    3. The Outer Himalayas (or Shiwalik).
    • Formation of these ranges: The Himadri and Himachal ranges of the Himalayas have been formed much before the formation of Siwalik range. The rivers rising in the Himadri and Himachal ranges brought gravel, sand and mud along with them, which was deposited in the rapidly shrinking Tethys Sea. In the course of time, the earth movements caused the folding of these relatively fresh deposits of sediments, giving rise to the least consolidated Shiwalik range.
    • Characteristic Features:
      • Notice in the map shown above that the Himalayas form an arcuate curve which is convex to the south. This curved shape of the Himalayas is attributed to the maximum push offered at the two ends on the Indian peninsula during its northward drift. In the north-west, it was done by Aravalis and in the Northeast by the Assam ranges.
      • Syntaxis/ Syntaxial bends: The gently arching ranges of the Himalayan mountains on their Western and Eastern extremities are sharply bent southward in deep Knee-bend flexures that are called syntaxial bends. On both the ends, the great mountains appear to bend around a pivotal point. The western point is situated south of the Pamir where the Karakoram meets the Hindu Kush. A similar sharp, almost hairpin bend occurs on the eastern limit of Arunachal Pradesh where the strike of the mountain changes sharply from the Easterly to Southerly trend. Besides these two major bends, there are a number of minor syntaxial bends in other parts of Himalayas.
        Syntaxial Bends of Himalayas
      • The Himalayas are wider in the west than in the east. The width varies from 400 km in Kashmir to 150 km in Arunachal Pradesh. The main reason behind this difference is that the compressive force was more in the east than in the west. That is why high mountain peaks like Mount Everest and Kanchenjunga are present in the Eastern Himalayas.
      • The ranges are separated by deep valleys creating a highly dissected topography.
      • The southern slopes of the Himalayas facing India are steeper and those facing the Tibetan side are generally gentler.
    • Let’s take up these Himalayan mountain ranges one by one:   The Himalayan Ranges | the Greater Himalayan Range, the Lesser Himalayas, the Shivaliks Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone: It represents a belt of tectonic compression caused by the underthrusting of the Indian shield/ plate against the Tibetan mass. It marks the boundary between the Indian and Eurasian plates. The suture zone stretches from the North-Western Himalayan syntaxis bordering the Nanga Parbat to the East as far as the Namche Barwa Mountain. The Karakoram Range and the Ladakh plateau lie to the north of ITSZ and originally formed a part of the European plate. Main Central Thrust Zone: This separates the Higher Himalayas in the north from lesser Himalayas in the south. It has played an important role in the tectonic history of these mountains. Main Boundary Thrust: It is a reverse fault of great dimensions which extends all the way from Assam to Punjab and serves to separate the outer Himalayas from the lesser Himalayas.Himalayan Frontal Fault: It is a series of reverse faults that demarcates the boundary of the Shivalik from of the Himalayan province from the alluvial expanse of the Indo-Gangetic plains.
    Major Faults of the Himalayas – ITSZ, MCT, MBT, HFF
    The Himalayan Complex: A Cross-sectional View  

    Besides the longitudinal divisions, the Himalayas have been divided on the basis of regions from west to east:

    These divisions have been demarcated by river valleys:

    The Regional Divisions of Himalayas – the Western and Eastern Himalayas.
    1. Punjab Himalayas:
      • A large portion of Punjab Himalayas is in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. Hence they are also called the Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya.
      • Major ranges: Karakoram, Ladakh, Pir Panjal, Zaskar and Dhaola Dhar.
      • The general elevation falls westwards.
      • The Kashmir Himalayas are also famous for Karewa formations.
        • ‘Karewas’ in Kashmiri language refer to the lake deposits, found in the flat-topped terraces of the Kashmir valley and on the flanks of the Pir Panjal range.
        • These deposits consist of clays, silts and sands, these deposits also show evidence of glaciation.
        • The occurrence of tilted beds of Karewas at the altitudes of 1500-1800m on the flanks of the Pir Panjal strongly suggests that the Himalayas were in process of uplift as late as Pliocene and Pleistocene (1.8mya to 10kyears ago)
        • Karewas are famous for the cultivation of Zafran, a local variety of saffron.
    2. Kumaon Himalayas
    3. Nepal Himalayas:
      • Tallest section of Himalayas
    4. Sikkim Himalayas:
      • Teesta river originates near Kanchenjunga
      • Jelep la pass- tri-junction of India- China-Bhutan
    5. Assam Himalayas:
      • The Himalayas are narrower in this region and Lesser Himalayas lie close to Great Himalayas.
      • Peaks: Namcha Barwa, Kula Kangri
      • Bengal ‘Duars’
      • Diphu pass- tri-junction of India- China-Myanmar
      • The Assam Himalayas show a marked dominance of fluvial erosion due to heavy rainfall.
    The West-East Division of Himalayas

    Glaciers and Snowline:

    Snowline: The lower limit of perpetual snow is called the ‘snowline’. The snowline in the Himalayas has different heights in different parts, depending on latitude, altitude, amount of precipitation, moisture, slope and local topography.

    1. The snowline in the Western Himalaya is at a lower altitude than in the Eastern Himalaya. E.g. while the glaciers of the Kanchenjunga in the Sikkim portion hardly move below 4000m, and those of Kumaon and Lahul to 3600m, the glaciers of the Kashmir Himalayas may descend to 2500m above the sea level.

    • It is because of the increase in latitude from 28°N in Kanchenjunga to 36°N in the Karakoram (Lower latitude —> warmer temperatures —> higher snowline).
    • Also, the Eastern Himalayas rise abruptly from the planes without the intervention of High ranges.
    • Though the total precipitation is much less in the western Himalayas, it all takes place in the form of snow.

    2. In the Great Himalayan ranges, the snowline is at a lower elevation on the southern slopes than on the northern slopes. This is because the southern slopes are steeper and receive more precipitation as compared to the northern slopes.

    Glaciers: The main glaciers are found in the Great Himalayas and the Trans-Himalayan ranges (Karakoram, Ladakh and Zaskar). The Lesser Himalayas have small glaciers, though traces of large glaciers are found in the Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges. Some of the important glaciers are:

    Important Glaciers and their Locations

    Key differences between the Eastern and Western Himalayas:

    Key Difference between the Western and Eastern Himalayas.

    Important Passes in India:

    A pass is a narrow gap in a mountain range which provides a passageway through the barrier.

    Important Passes in India
    1. Pir Panjal Pass – It provides the shortest and the easiest metal road between Jammu and the Kashmir Valley. But this route had to be closed down as a result of partition of the subcontinent.
    2. Banihal Pass – It is in Jammu and Kashmir. The road from Jammu to Srinagar transversed Banihal Pass until 1956 when Jawahar Tunnel was constructed under the pass. The road now passes through the tunnel and the Banihal Pass is no longer used for road transport.
    3. Zoji La (Pass) – It is in the Zaskar range of Jammu and Kashmir. The land route from Srinagar to Leh goes through this pass.
    4. Shipki La (Pass) – It is in Himachal Pradesh. The road from Shimla to Tibet goes through this pass. The Satluj river flows through this pass.
    5. Bara Lacha Pass – It is also in Himachal Pradesh. It links Mandi and Leh by road.
    6. Rohtang Pass – It is also in Himachal Pradesh. It cuts through the Pir Panjal range. It links Manali and Leh by road.
    7. Niti Pass – It is in Uttarakhand. The road to the Kailash and the Manasarovar passes through it.
    8. Nathu La (Pass) – It is in Sikkim. It gives way to Tibet from Darjeeling and Chumbi valley. The Chumbi river flows through this pass.
    9. Jalep La (Pass) – At the tri-junction of India- China-Bhutan. The Teesta river has created this pass.

    B) The North-Eastern Hills and Mountains

    The North-Eastern Hills (Purvanchal): Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills

    The Brahmaputra marks the eastern border of Himalayas. Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend sharply towards the south and form the Eastern hills or Purvanchal.

    • These hills run through the northeastern states of India.
    • These hills differ in scale and relief but stem from the Himalayan orogeny.
    • They are mostly composed of sandstones (i.e. Sedimentary rocks).
    • These hills are covered with dense forests.
    • Their elevation decreases from north to south. Although comparatively low, these hill ranges are rather forbidding because of the rough terrain, dense forests and swift streams.
    • Purvanchal hills are convex to the west.
    • These hills are composed of:
      • Patkai Bum – Border between Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar
      • Naga Hills
      • Manipuri Hills – Border between Manipur and Myanmar
      • Mizo Hills.
    • Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the watershed between India and Myanmar.
    • Extension of Purvanchal continues in Myanmar as Arakan Yoma –then Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
    Arakan Yoma – An Extension of Purvanchal in Myanmar

    The importance of Himalayan Region:

    1. Climatic Influence – The altitude of the Himalayas, their sprawl and extension intercept the summer monsoon. They also prevent the cold Siberian air masses from entering into India.
    1. Defence
    2. Source of perennial rivers
    3. Source of fertile soils
    4. Generation of hydroelectricity
    5. Forest wealth
    6. Orchards
    7. Minerals – The Himalayan region is rich in minerals e.g. gold, silver, copper, lead etc. are known to occur. Coal is found in Kashmir. But at the present level of technological advancement, it is not possible to extract these minerals. Also, it is not economically viable.
    8. Tourism
    9. Pilgrimage

    NORTHERN PLAINS

    Location and Extent:

    Northern plains are the youngest physiographic feature in India. They lie to the south of the Shivaliks, separated by the Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF). The southern boundary is a wavy irregular line along the northern edge of the Peninsular India. On the eastern side, the plains are bordered by the Purvanchal hills.

    The Physiographic Divisions of India: the Northern Plains

    Formation of Northern Plains:

    Due to the uplift of the Himalayas in the Tethys Sea, the northern part of the Indian Peninsula got subsided and formed a large basin.

    northern-plains
    Source

    That basin was filled with sediments from the rivers which came from the mountains in the north and from the peninsula in the south. These extensive alluvial deposits led to the formation of the northern plains of India.

    Chief Characteristics:

    • The northern plain of India is formed by three river systems, i.e. the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra; along with their tributaries.
    • The northern plains are the largest alluvial tract of the world. These plains extend approximately 3200 km from west to east.
    • The average width of these plains varies between 150 and 300 km. In general, the width of the northern plains increases from east to west (90-100km in Assam to about 500km in Punjab).
    • The exact depth of alluvium has not yet been fully determined. According to recent estimates, the average depth of alluvium in the southern side of the plain varies between 1300-1400m, while towards the Shiwaliks, the depth of alluvium increases. The maximum depth of over 8000m has been reached in parts of Haryana.
    • The extreme horizontality of this monotonous plain is its chief characteristic (200m – 291m). The highest elevation of 291 m above mean sea level near Ambala forms a watershed between the Indus system and Ganga system).
    • The monotony of the physical landscape is broken at the micro-level by the river bluffs, levees etc.
      • [Floodplain – That part of a river valley, adjacent to the channel, over which a river flows in times of a flood.
      • Levee – An elevated bank flanking the channel of the river and standing above the level of the flood plain.
      • Bluff – A river cut cliff or steep slope on the outside of a meander. A line of bluffs often marks the edge of a former floodplain.]
    slide_34
    Source

    Physiographic Divisions of the Northern Plains:

    From the north to the south, the northern plains can be divided into three major zones:

    1. The Bhabar
    2. The Tarai
    3. The alluvial plains.

    The alluvial plains can be further divided into the Khadar and the Bhangar as illustrated below:

    Geomorphology of the Northern Plains

    Let’s understand these divisions one by one:

    Bhabar:

    • Bhabar is a narrow belt (8-10km wide) which runs in the west-east direction along the foot of the Himalayas from the river Indus to Teesta.
      Source
    • Rivers which descend from the Himalayas deposit their load along the foothills in the form of alluvial fans.
    • These fans consisting of coarser sediments have merged together to build up the piedmont plain/the Bhabar.
    • The porosity of the pebble-studded rock beds is very high and as a result, most of the streams sink and flow underground. Therefore, the area is characterized by dry river courses except in the rainy season.
    • The Bhabar track is not suitable for cultivation of crops. Only big trees with large roots thrive in this region.
    • The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow in the east and extensive in the western and north-western hilly region.

    Tarai:

    • It is a 10-20 km wide marshy region in the south of Bhabar and runs parallel to it.
    • The Tarai is wider in the eastern parts of the Great Plains, especially in the Brahmaputra valley due to heavy rainfall.
    • It is characterized by the re-emergence of the underground streams of the Bhabar belt.
    • The reemerged water transforms large areas along the rivers into badly drained marshy lands.
    • Once covered with dense forests, most of the Tarai land (especially in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand) has been reclaimed and turned into agricultural land over a period of time.

    Bhangar:

    • It is the older alluvium along the river beds forming terraces higher than the flood plain.
    • Dark in colour, rich in humus content and productive.
    • The soil is clayey in composition and has lime modules (called kankar)
    • Found in doabs (inter-fluve areas)
    • ‘The Barind plains’ in the deltaic region of Bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in the middle Ganga and Yamuna doab are regional variations of Bhangar. [Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land situated along the banks of the Ganga river especially in the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This has been formed due to accumulation of wind-blown sands during the hot dry months of the year]
    • In relatively drier areas, the Bhangar also exhibits small tracts of saline and alkaline efflorescence known as ‘Reh’, ‘Kallar’ or ‘Bhur’. Reh areas have spread in recent times with an increase in irrigation (capillary action brings salts to the surface).
    • May have fossil remains of even those plants and animals which have become extinct.

    Khadar:

    • Composed of newer alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks.
    • Light in colour, sandy in texture and more porous.
    • Found near the riverbeds.
    • A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river flood almost every year. This makes them the most fertile soils of Ganges.
    • In Punjab, the Khadar rich flood plains are locally known as ‘Betlands’ or ‘Bets’.
    • The rivers in Punjab-Haryana plains have broad flood plains of Khadar flanked by bluffs, locally known as Dhayas. These bluffs are as high as 3metres.

    Northern Plain: Regional Divisions

    The Regional Divisions of the Northern Plains: Punjab, Ganga and the Brahmaputra Plains.

    1. Punjab Plains:
    • The Punjab plains form the western part of the northern plain.
    • In the east, the Delhi-Aravalli ridge separates it from the Ganga plains.
    • This is formed by the Indus and its tributaries; like Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. A major portion of these plains is in Pakistan.
    • It is divided into many Doabs (do-“two” + ab- “water or river” = “a region or land lying between and reaching to the meeting of the two rivers”).
        Khadar and Bhangar
    • Important features:
      • Khadar rich flood plains known as ‘Betlands’ or ‘Bets’.
      • The rivers in Punjab-Haryana plains have broad flood plains of Khadar flanked by bluffs, locally known as Dhayas.
      • The northern part of this plane adjoining the Shivalik hills has been heavily eroded by numerous streams, which are called Chhos.
      • The southwestern parts, especially the Hisar district is sandy and characterized by shifting sand-dunes.
    1. Ganga Plains:
    • The Ganga plains lie between the Yamuna catchment in the west to the Bangladesh border in the East.
    • The lower Ganga plain has been formed by the down warping of a part of Peninsular India between Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau and subsequent sedimentation by the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.
    • The main topographical variations in these plains include Bhabar, Tarai, Bhangar, Khadar, levees, abandoned courses etc.
    • Almost all the rivers keep on shifting their courses making this area prone to frequent floods. The Kosi river is very notorious in this respect. It has long been called the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
    • The northern states, Haryana, Delhi, UP, Bihar, part of Jharkhand and West Bengal in the east lie in the Ganga plains.
    • The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta: the largest delta in the world. A large part of the coastal delta is covered tidal forests called Sunderbans. Sunderbans, the largest mangrove swamp in the world gets its name from the Sundari tree which grows well in marshland. It is home to the Royal Tiger and crocodiles.
    1. Brahmaputra Plains:
    • This plain forms the eastern part of the northern plain and lies in Assam.
    • Its western boundary is formed by the Indo-Bangladesh border as well as the boundary of the lower Ganga Plain. Its eastern boundary is formed by Purvanchal hills.
    • The region is surrounded by high mountains on all sides, except on the west.
    • The whole length of the plain is traversed by the Brahmaputra.
    • The Brahmaputra plains are known for their riverine islands (due to the low gradient of the region) and sand bars.
    • The innumerable tributaries of the Brahmaputra river coming from the north form a number of alluvial fans. Consequently, the tributaries branch out in many channels giving birth to river meandering leading to the formation of bill and ox-bow lakes.
    • There are large marshy tracts in this area. The alluvial fans formed by the coarse alluvial debris have led to the formation of terai or semi-terai conditions.

    Significance of this region:

    • The plains constitute less than one-third of the total area of the country but support over 40 percent of the total population of the country.
    • Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow-moving perennial rivers and favourable climate facilitate an intense agricultural activity.
    • The extensive use of irrigation has made Punjab, Haryana and western part of Uttar Pradesh the granary of India (Prairies are called the granaries of the world).
    • Cultural tourism: Several sacred places and centres of pilgrimage are situated in these plains e.g. Haridwar, Amritsar, Varanasi, Allahabad, Bodh Gaya etc.
    • The sedimentary rocks of plains have petroleum and natural gas deposits.
    • The rivers here have very gentle gradients which make them navigable over long distances.

    PENINSULAR PLATEAU

    A. Location and Extent

    • The Peninsular Plateau lies to the south of the Northern Plains of India.
    • It is bordered on all sides by the hill ranges:
    • Delhi ridge in the north-west (extension of Aravalis),
    • the Rajmahal Hills in the east,
    • Gir range in the west, and
    • the Cardamom Hills in the south constitute the outer extent of the peninsular plateau.
    The Physiographic Divisions of India | The Peninsular Plateau
    • Outlier:
      • Shillong and Karbi-Anglong plateau.

    Note: Kutchch Kathiawar region – The region, though an extension of Peninsular plateau (because Kathiawar is made of the Deccan Lava and there are tertiary rocks in the Kutch area), they are now treated as an integral part of the Western Coastal Plains as they are now levelled down.

    • The Garo-Rajmahal Gap:
      • The two disconnected outlying segments of the plateau region are seen in the Rajmahal and Garo-Khasi Jaintia hills.
      • It is believed that due to the force exerted by the northeastward movement of the Indian plate at the time of the Himalayan origin, a huge fault was created between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau
      • Later, this depression got filled up by the deposition activity of the numerous rivers.
      • As a result, today the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong plateau stand detached from the main Peninsular Block.

    Geological History and Features:

    The peninsular plateau is a tableland which contains igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is one of the oldest and the most stable landmass of India.

    In its otherwise stable history, the peninsula has seen a few changes like:

    1. Gondwana Coal Formation.
    2. Narmada-Tapi rift valley formation.
    3. Basalt Lava eruption on Deccan plateau:

    During its journey northward after breaking off from the rest of Gondwana, the Indian Plate passed over a geologic hotspot, the Réunion hotspot, which caused extensive melting underneath the Indian Craton. The melting broke through the surface of the craton in a massive flood basalt event, creating what is known as the Deccan Traps (Its various features have been discussed in the later portion of the article).

    Chief Characteristics:

    The entire peninsular plateau region is an aggregation of several smaller plateaus and hill ranges interspersed with river basins and valleys. The Chhattisgarh plain occupied by the dense Dandakaranya forests is the only plain in the peninsula.

    1. General elevation and flow of rivers:

    • The average elevation is 600-900 metres.
    • The general elevation of the plateau is from the west to the east, which is also proved by the pattern of the flow of rivers.
    • Barring Narmada and Tapti all the major rivers lying to the south of the Vindhyas flow eastwards to fall into the Bay of Bengal.
    • The westward flow of Narmada and Tapi is assigned to the fact that they have been flowing through faults or rifts which were probably caused when the Himalayas began to emerge from the Tethys Sea of the olden times.

    2. Some of the important physiographic features of this region are:

    • Tors – Prominent, isolated mass of jointed, weathered rock, usually granite.
    A granite tor near Ranchi
    A granite tor near Ranchi
    • Block Mountains and Rift Valleys:
    • Spurs: A marked projection of land from a mountain or a ridge
    spur
    Image Source
    • Bare rocky structures,
    • Series of hummocky hills and wall-like quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage.
    • Broad and shallow valleys and rounded hills
    • Ravines and gorges: The northwestern part of the plateau has a complex relief of ravines and gorges. The ravines of Chambal, Bhind and Morena are some of the well-known examples.

    3. The Deccan Traps:

    • One of the most important features of the peninsular plateau is the black soil area in the western and northwestern part of the plateau, which is known as the Deccan Trap.
    • From the end of the Cretacious until the beginning of the Eocene, numerous fissure-type eruptions took place in the north-western part of the Deccan plateau. It is believed that the lava outpourings were more than the mass comprising the present-day Himalayas.
    • It covers a major portion of the Maharashtra plateau and parts of Gujarat, northern Karnataka and Malwa plateau. Some parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, UP, and Jharkhand have some outliers of Deccan trap.
    • Basalt is the main rock of the region.
    • The region has black cotton soil as a result of weathering of this lava material and this soil is one of the finest examples of the parent material controlled soils.

    Physiographic Divisions:

    On the basis of prominent relief features, the peninsular plateau can be divided into three broad groups:

    • The Central Highlands
    • The Deccan Plateau
    • The Northeastern Plateau.
    Physiographic Divisions and Important Mountain Ranges of the Peninsular Plateau

    Let’s take up these divisions one by one:

    1. The Central Highlands

    • The northern segment of the peninsular plateau is known as the Central Highlands.
    • Location:
      1. North of Narmada river.
      2. They are bounded to the west by the Aravallis.
      3. Satpura ranges (formed by a series of scarped plateaus) lie in the South.
    • General Elevation: 700-1,000 m above the mean sea level and it slopes towards the north and northeastern directions.
    • These highlands consist of the:
      1. Marwar upland – to the east of Aravallis in Rajasthan
        • A rolling plain carved by Banas river. [Rolling Plain: ‘Rolling plains’ are not completely flat; there are slight rises and fall in the landform. Ex: Prairies of USA]
        • The average elevation is 250-500 m above sea level.
      2. Madhya Bharat Pathar – to the east of Marwar upland.
      3. Malwa plateau – It lies in Madhya Pradesh between Aravali and Vindhyas. It is composed of the extensive lava flow and is covered with black soils.
      4. Bundelkhand plateau – It lies along the borders of UP and MP. Because of intensive erosion, semi-arid climate and undulating area, it is unfit for cultivation.
      5. Baghelkhand plateau – It lies to the east of the Maikal range.
      6. Chhotanagpur plateau – the northeast part of Peninsular plateau.
        • It Includes Jharkhand, parts of Chhattisgarh and West Bengal.
        • This plateau consists of a series of step-like sub-plateaus (locally called peatlands – high-level plateau). It is thus famous as the Patland plateau and known as Ruhr of India.
        • Rajmahal Hills are the northeastern projection of Chhota Nagpur Plateau.
        • It is a mineral-rich plateau.
    • The extension of the Peninsular plateau can be seen as far as Jaisalmer in the West, where it has been covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans.
    • This region has undergone metamorphic processes in its geological history, which can be corroborated by the presence of metamorphic rocks such as marble, slate, gneiss, etc.
    • Most of the tributaries of the river Yamuna have their origin in the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges. Banas is the only significant tributary of the river Chambal that originates from the Aravalli in the west.
    Physiographic Divisions of the Peninsular Plateau – the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau

    2. The Deccan Plateau

    • The Deccan Plateau lies to the south of the Narmada River and is shaped as an inverted triangle.
    • It is bordered by:
      1. The Western Ghats in the west,
      2. The Eastern Ghats in the east,
      3. The Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills in the north.
    • It is volcanic in origin, made up of horizontal layers of solidified lava forming trap structure with step-like appearance. The sedimentary layers are also found in between the layers of solidified lava, making it inter–trapping in structure.
    • Most of the rivers flow from west to east.
    • The plateau is suitable for the cultivation of cotton; home to rich mineral resources and a source to generate hydroelectric power.
    • The Deccan plateau can be subdivided as follows:
      1. The Maharashtra Plateau – it has typical Deccan trap topography underlain by basaltic rock, the regur.
      2. The Karnataka Plateau (also known as Mysore plateau) – divided into western hilly country region of ‘Malnad’ and plain ‘Maidan’
      3. Telangana Plateau

    3. The Northeastern Plateau:

    • The Meghalaya (or Shillong) plateau is separated from peninsular rock base by the Garo-Rajmahal gap.
    • Shillong (1,961 m) is the highest point of the plateau.
    • The region has the Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Mikir (Rengma) hills.
    • An extension of the Meghalaya plateau is also seen in the Karbi Anglong hills of Assam.
    • The Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral resources like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone and uranium.
    • This area receives maximum rainfall from the south-west monsoon. As a result, the Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface. Cherrapunji displays a bare rocky surface devoid of any permanent vegetation cover.

    Hill ranges of the peninsula:

    Most of the hills in the peninsular region are of the relict type (residual hills). They are the remnants of the hills and horsts formed many million years ago (horst: uplifted block; graben: subsided block).

    The plateaus of the Peninsular region are separated from one another by these hill ranges and various river valleys.

    Hill Ranges of the Peninsula

    1. The Aravalli Mountain Range:

    • It is a relic of one of the oldest fold mountains of the world.
    • Its general elevation is only 400-600 m, with few hills well above 1,000 m.
    • At present, it is seen as a discontinuous ridge from Delhi to Ajmer and rising up to 1722m (Gurushikhar peak in Mount Abu) and thence southward.
    • It is known as ‘Jarga’ near Udaipur and ‘Delhi Ridge’ near Delhi.
    • Dilwara Jain Temple, the famous Jain temple is situated on Mt. Abu.

    2. Vindhyan Ranges:

    • They rise as an escarpment running parallel to the Narmada-Son valley.
    • General elevation: 300 to 650 m.
    • Most of them are made up of sedimentary rocks of ancient ages.
    • They act as a watershed between Gangetic and peninsular river systems.

    3. Satpura ranges:

    • Satpura range is a series of seven mountains (‘Sat’ = seven and ‘pura’ = mountains).
    • The seven mountain ranges or folds of Satpura’s are:
      • Maikal Hills
      • Mahadeo Hills near Pachmarhi
      • Kalibhit
      • Asirgarh
      • Bijagarh
      • Barwani
      • Arwani which extends to Rajpipla Hills in Eastern Gujarat.
    • Satpura ranges run parallel between Narmada and Tapi, parallel to Maharashtra-MP border.
    • Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi on Mahadev Hills is the highest peak of the Satpura Range.
    • Amarkantak (1,127 m) is another important peak. Amarkantak is the highest peak of the Maikal Hills from where two prominent rivers – the Narmada and the Son originate.
    • Note that three rivers originate from the three sides of Maikal hills (as shown in the following map) but, from Amarkantak, only two rivers (the Narmada and the Son) originate (and not Mahanadi).
    The Satpura Mountain Range

    4. Western and Eastern Ghats:

    • The Western Ghats:
      • These are a faulted part of the Deccan plateau running parallel from the Tapi valley to a little north of Kanyakumari (1600km). Their western slope is like an escarpment while eastern slope merges gently with the plateau.
      • Their average elevation is about 1,500 m with the height increasing from north to south.
    • The Eastern Ghats are in the form of residual mountains which are not regular but broken at intervals.
    • The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills.
    • A brief comparison between them:
    Differences between the Western and Eastern Ghats.
    A cross-sectional view through the Peninsular Plateau showing sharp relief contrast between the western and eastern margins

    Note: The Western Ghats are continuous and can be crossed through passes only. There are four main passes which have developed in the Western Ghats. These are:

    1. Thal Ghat – It links Nasik to Mumbai.
    2. Bhor Ghat – It links Mumbai to Pune.
    3. Pal Ghat – This pass is located between the Nilgiris and the Annamalai mountains. It is in Kerala and connects Kochi and Chennai.
    4. Senkota Pass – This pass located between the Nagercoil and the Cardamom hills links Thiruvananthapuram and Madurai.

    For the geographical location of these passes, see the following map:

    Important Passes in India

    Significance of the Peninsular Region:

    • Rich in mineral resources: The peninsular region of India is rich in both metallic and non-metallic minerals. About 98% of the Gondwana coal deposits of India are found in the peninsular region.
    • Agriculture: Black soil found in a substantial part of the peninsula is conducive for the cultivation of cotton, maize , citrus fruits etc. Some areas are also suitable for the cultivation of tea, coffee, groundnut etc.
    • Forest Products: Apart from teal, sal wood and other forest products, the forests of Western and Eastern Ghats are rich in medicinal plants and are home to many wild animals.
    • Hydel Power: many rivers, which have waterfalls. They help in the generation of hydroelectric power.
    • Tourism: There are numerous hill stations and hill resorts like Ooty, Mahabaleshwar, Khandala, etc.

    THE INDIAN DESERT

    The Indian desert is also known as the Thar Desert or the Great Indian Desert.

    Location and Extent:

    • Location – To the north-west of the Aravali hills.
    • It covers Western Rajasthan and extends to the adjacent parts of Pakistan.
    The Physiographic Divisions of India | The Indian Desert

    Geological History and Features

    • Most of the arid plain was under the sea from Permo-Carboniferous period and later it was uplifted during the Pleistocene age. This can be corroborated by the evidence available at wood fossils park at Aakal and marine deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer (The approximate age of the wood fossils is estimated to be 180 million years).
    • The presence of dry beds of rivers (eg Saraswati) indicates that the region was once fertile.
    • Geologically, the desert area is a part of the peninsular plateau region but on the surface, it looks like an aggradational plain.

    Chief Characteristics:

    • The desert proper is called the Marusthali (dead land) as this region has an arid climate with low vegetation cover. In general, the Eastern part of the Marushthali is rocky, while its western part is covered by shifting sand dunes.
    • Bagar: Bagar refers to the semi-desert area which is west of Aravallis. Bagar has a thin layer of sand. It is drained by Luni in the south whereas the northern section has a number of salt lakes.
    • The Rajasthan Bagar region has a number of short seasonal streams which originate from the Aravallis. These streams support agriculture in some fertile patches called Rohi.
    • Even the most important river ‘Luni’ is a seasonal stream. The Luni originates in the Pushkar valley of the Aravalli Range, near Ajmer and flows towards the southwest into the Rann of Kutch.
    • The region north of Luni is known as the Thali or sandy plain.
    • There are some streams which disappear after flowing for some distance and present a typical case of inland drainage by joining a lake or playa e.g. the Sambhar Lake. The lakes and the playas have brackish water which is the main source of obtaining salt.
    • Well pronounced desert land features:
      • Sand dunes: It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes, transverse dunes and barchans. [Barchan – A crescent-shaped sand dune, the horns of which point away from the direction of the dominant wind; Longitudinal dune – A sand dune with its crest running parallel to the direction of prevailing wind]
    sand-dunes
    Image Source
    • Mushroom rocks
    • Shifting dunes (locally called Dhrians)
    • Oasis (mostly in its southern part)

    THE COASTAL PLAINS

    Of the total coastline of India (7517 km), that of the peninsula is 6100 km between the peninsular plateau and the sea. The peninsular plateau of India is flanked by narrow coastal plains of varied width from north to south.

    The Physiographic Divisions of India | The Coastal Plains

    On the basis of the location and active geomorphologic processes, these can be broadly divided into two parts:

    • The western coastal plains
    • The eastern coastal plains.

    We now take them up one by one:

    The Western Coastal Plain

    1. Extent: The Western Coastal Plains are a thin strip of coastal plains with a width of 50 km between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats.

    2. Subdivisions: Extending from the Gujarat coast in the north to the Kerala coast in the south, the western coast may be divided into following divisions:

    • Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat,
    • Konkan coast in Maharashtra,
    • Goan Coast in Karnataka, and
    • Malabar coast in Kerala

    Note: Kutch and Kathiawar, though an extension of Peninsular plateau (because Kathiawar is made of the Deccan Lava and there are tertiary rocks in the Kutch area), they are still treated as an integral part of the Western Coastal Plains as they are now levelled down.

    Subdivisions of the eastern and Western Coastal Plains

    3. A coastline of submergence: The western coastal plains are an example of the submerged coastal plain. It is believed that the city of Dwaraka which was once a part of the Indian mainland situated along the west coast is submerged underwater.

    4. Characteristic Features:

    • The western coastal plains are narrow in the middle and get broader towards north and south. Except for the Kachchh and Kathiawar coastal region, these are narrower than their eastern counterpart.
    • The coast is straight and affected by the South-West Monsoon winds over a period of six months. The western coastal plains are thus wetter than their eastern counterpart.
    • The western coast being more indented than the eastern coast provides natural conditions for the development of ports and harbours. Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are some of the important natural ports located along the west coast.
    • The western coastal plains are dotted with a large number of coves (a very small bay), creeks (a narrow, sheltered waterway such as an inlet in a shoreline or channel in a marsh) and a few estuaries. The estuaries, of the Narmada and the Tapi are the major ones.
    • The rivers flowing through this coastal plain do not form any delta. Many small rivers descend from the Western Ghats making a chain of waterfalls.
    • The Kayals – The Malabar coast has a distinguishing feature in the form of ‘Kayals’ (backwaters). These backwaters are the shallow lagoons or the inlets of the sea and lie parallel to the coastline. These are used for fishing, inland navigation and are important tourist spots. The largest of these lagoons is the Vembanad lake. Kochi is situated on its opening into the sea.

    The Eastern Coastal Plain

    1. Extent: The Eastern Coastal Plains is a strip of coastal plain with a width of 100 – 130 km between the Bay of Bengal and the Eastern Ghats

    2. Subdivisions: It can be divided into two parts:

    • Northern Circar: The northern part between Mahanadi and Krishna rivers. Additionally, the coastal tract of Odisha is called the Utkal plains.
    • Coromandel Coast (or Payan Ghat): The southern part between Krishna and Kaveri rivers.

    3. A coastline of emergence: The eastern coastal plain is broader and is an example of an emergent coast.

    4. Characteristic features:

    • The eastern coastal plains are wider and drier resulting in shifting sand dunes on its plains.
    • There are well-developed deltas here, formed by the rivers flowing eastward in to the Bay of Bengal. These include the deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri.
    • Because of its emergent nature, it has less number of ports and harbours. The continental shelf extends up to 500 km into the sea, which makes it difficult for the development of good ports and harbours.
    • Chilika lake is an important feature along the eastern coast. It is the largest saltwater lake in India.

    Significance of the Coastal Plains region:

    1. These plains are agriculturally very productive. The western coast grows specialized tropical crops while eastern coasts witnessed a green revolution in rice.
    2. The delta regions of eastern coastal plains have a good network of canals across the river tributaries.
    3. Coastal plains are a source of salt, monazite (used for nuclear power) and mineral oil and gas as well as centres of fisheries.
    4. Although lacking in adequate natural harbours, with a number of major and minor ports, coastal plains are centres of commerce and have attracted dense human settlements.
    5. The coastal regions of India are noted for tourist centres, fishing and salt making.

    THE ISLANDS

    There are two major island groups in India

    1. The island groups of Bay of Bengal: Andaman & Nicobar Islands
    2. The island groups of Arabian Sea: Lakshadweep and Minicoy Islands
    The Physiographic Divisions of India | The Islands

    Let’s take these up one by one:

    Andaman & Nicobar Islands:

    • Also called the emerald islands.
    • Location and Extent:
      • These are situated roughly between 6°N-14°N and 92°E -94°E.
      • The most visible feature of the alignment of these islands is their narrow longitudinal extent.
      • These islands extend from the Landfall Island in the north (in the Andamans) to the Indira Point (formerly known as Pygmalion Point and Parsons Point) in the south (In the Great Nicobar).
    • Origin: The Andaman and Nicobar islands have a geological affinity with the tertiary formation of the Himalayas, and form a part of its southern loop continuing southward from the Arakan Yoma.
    • The entire group of islands is divided into two broad categories:
      • The Andaman in the north, and
      • The Nicobar in the south.

    They are separated by a water body which is called the Ten-degree channel.

    • The Andaman islands are further divided into:
      • Great Andamans
        • North Andaman
        • Middle Andaman
        • South Andaman
      • Little Andaman

    Little Andaman is separated from the Great Andamans by the Duncan Passage.

    The Andaman and Nicobar Islands
    • Chief Characteristics:
      • These are actually a continuation of Arakan Yoma mountain range of Myanmar and are therefore characterized by hill ranges and valleys along with the development of some coral islands.
      • Some smaller islands are volcanic in origin e.g. the Barren island and the Narcondam Island. Narcondam is supposed to be a dormant volcano but Barren perhaps is still active.
      • These islands make an arcuate curve, convex to the west.
      • These islands are formed of granitic rocks.
      • The coastal line has some coral deposits and beautiful beaches.
      • These islands receive convectional rainfall and have an equatorial type of vegetation.
      • These islands have a warm tropical climate all year round with two monsoons.
      • The Saddle peak (North Andaman – 738 m) is the highest peak of these islands.
      • The Great Nicobar is the largest island in the Nicobar group and is the southernmost island. It is just 147 km away from the Sumatra island of Indonesia.

    Lakshadweep Islands:

    • These islands were earlier (before 1st November 1973) known as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindivi Islands.
    • Location:
      • These are scattered in the Arabian Sea between 8°N-12°N and 71°E -74°E longitude.
      • These islands are located at a distance of 280 km-480 km off the Kerala coast.
    • Origin: The entire island group is built of coral deposits.
    • Important islands:
      • Amindivi and Cannanore islands in the north.
      • Minicoy (lies to the south of the nine-degree channel) is the largest island with an area of 453 sq. km.
    map_of_lakshadweep-en-svg
    Source
    • Chief Characteristics:
      • These consist of approximately 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited.
      • These islands, in general, have a north-south orientation (only Androth has an East-West orientation.
      • These islands are never more than 5 metres above sea level.
      • These islands have calcium-rich soils- organic limestones and scattered vegetation of palm species.
      • One typical feature of these islands is the formation of the crescentic reef in the east and a lagoon in the west.
      • Their eastern seaboard is steeper.
      • The Islands of this archipelago have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles, cobbles and boulders on the eastern seaboard.
      • The islands form the smallest Union Territory of India.

    Other than the above mentioned two major groups, the important islands are:

    1. Majauli: in Assam. It is:
      1. The world’s largest freshwater (Brahmaputra river) island.
      2. India’s first island district
    2. Salsette: India’s most populous island. Mumbai city is located on this island.
    3. Sriharikota: A barrier island. On this island is located the satellite launching station of ISRO.
    4. Aliabet: India’s first off-shore oil well site (Gujarat); about 45 km from Bhavnagar, it is in the Gulf of Khambat.
    5. New Moore Island: in the Ganga delta. It is also known as Purbasha island. It is an island in the Sunderban deltaic region and it was a bone of contention between India and Bangladesh. In 2010, it was reported to have been completely submerged by the rising seawater due to Global warming.
    6. Pamban Island: lies between India and Sri Lanka.
    7. Abdul Kalam Island: The Wheeler Island near the Odisha coast was renamed as Abdul Kalam island in 2015. It is a missile launching station in the Bay of Bengal. The first successful land-to-land test of the Prithvi Missile was conducted from the mainland and it landed on the then uninhabited ‘Wheeler Island’ on November 30, 1993.

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    GS-1   Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc, geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes.

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    Question 1)

     

    Q.1 Why Himalayas are more prone to earthquakes than Western Ghats? Locate the various seismic highways in India by drawing a map of India & discuss the mechanism of propagation of earthquake inside the earth surface. (15 Marks)

     

    Question 2)

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    UPSC Daily Study Plan For 2021 and 2022 || STREAK – by Ravi Ranjan

    UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Current Affairs Most Probable Questions – by Sukanya Rana

    Q1) Consider the following statements:

    1. Agaricus is a form of bacteria.
    2. It represents saprotrophic type of association.

    Select the correct option:

    a) 1 only

    b) 2 only

    c) 1 and 2

    d) None

    Q2) Consider the following statements:

    1. The first photosynthetic organisms in the evolutionary history of life used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as sources of electrons in photosynthesis.
    2. Cyanobacteria produced excess oxygen which contributed directly to the oxygenation of the Earth.

    Identify incorrect statement in the following:

    a) 1 only

    b) 2 only

    c) 1 and 2

    d) None

    Q3) Consider the following statements with respect to Centre for Wetland Conservation and Management (CWCM) 

    1. It will be established as a part of the National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management (NCSCM). 
    2. India‟s first CWCM has been established in Kolkata. 

    Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 

    a) 1 only 

    b) 2 only 

    c) Both 1 and 2 

    d) Neither 1 nor 2

    Q4) Consider the following statements about Pong Dam Wildlife Sanctuary 

    1. It is located on the River Beas and in the State of Punjab. 

    2. Bar Headed Geese is a flagship species in the sanctuary.

    3. It is known for its flying capacity at extreme altitude i.e. heights of more than 7,000m. 

    Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct? 

    a) 1 and 2 only 

    b) 2 and 3 only 

    c) 1 and 3 only 

    d) All of the above

    Which of the following statements are incorrect with respect to Mandarin Duck 

    1. It is a small-exotic bird native to East Asia. 

    2. It is very rare to spot and is mentioned as critically endangered under IUCN Red list. 

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below: 

    a) 1 only 

    b)2 only 

    c) Both 1 and 2 

    d) Neither 1 nor 2

    UPSC PRELIMS-2021 || Most Probable Questions on Environment & Ecology – by Santosh Gupta

    Q1) Consider the following statements:

      1. Ecology is study of relationship of organisms with each other and environment

      2. Ecosystems are larger units of organization based on structure and composition of vegetation

      3.  Biome is defined as a structural and functional unit of biosphere

      4.  Biosphere is the largest unit of ecological organisation.

    Which of the above statements are correct?

    a) 1&2 are correct

    b) 2&3 are correct

    c) 1&4 are correct

    d) all of them are correct

    Q2) Select the correct statement/s with regards to ecotone. 

    1. It is a zone of transition. 

    2. It is linear in nature

    3. It is characterized by an edge effect.

    4. Hot spots are a type of ecotone

    Which of the above statements are true?

    a) 1,2 and 3

    b) 1, 2 and 4

    c) 2, 3 and 4

    d) All of them

    Q3) Consider the following statements with respect to Ecological Niche:

    1. Niche refers to functional characteristics of a species in its habitat
    2. All the species in a habitat have same niche
    3. The habitat plus the niche is called the ecotope
    4. Niche follows competitive exclusion principle 

    Which of the above statement(s) is/are true?

    a) 1 & 2 are correct

    b) 1 & 3 are correct

    c) 1, 3 & 4 are correct

    d) only 4 is correct

    Q4) Which of the following is/are the characteristics of the ecological pyramid?

    1. Ecological pyramid are of two types- Food and energy pyramids 

    2. Species are accounted for at multiple trophic levels taking account of all the roles it plays. 

    3. While food chain represents complex interactions, food web shows the linear interaction

    4. Saprophytes play a key role in ecological pyramid 

    Choose the correct option based on the above statements:

    a) 1&2 are correct

    b) 1,2 &4 are correct

    c)  only 4 are correct

    d) all of them are correct

    Q5) Select the correct statement/s from the set of statements given below. 

    1. Succession is a universal process of bidirectional change in vegetation. 

    2. Succession brought about by outside forces is known as allogenic succession. 

    3. The final stage of succession is called the climax community. 

    Which of above statements are true?

    a) 1 and 2 only

    b) 2 and 3 only

    c) 1 and 3 only

    d) All of them

    Daily Dose: Complete Snapshots of Everyday News – by Shweta Mishra

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