28th Apr 2021

In India, the British Government passed various laws and acts before the formulation of the constitution. The Regulating Act of 1773 was enacted as a first step to regulate the working of East India Company. However, the Indian Independence Act, 1947 finally ended the British rule in India and declared India as an independent and sovereign nation with effect from August 15, 1947.

The Regulating Act of 1773

• The Regulating Act of 1773 was enacted as a first step to regulate the working of East India Company
• The Gov of Bengal was made Gov General of Bengal. He was assisted by 4 people. This 4+1 becomes became Supreme Council of Bengal also known as the GG’s Exec Council.
• A Supreme Court was established in Bengal comprising of a chief justice and three other judges

Pitts’s India Act, 1784

• We see a shrinking of the Council from 4 members to 3 members. Hence 3+1 is the renewed GG’s Executive Council.
• Board of control was established to control the civil, military and revenue affairs of the company
• The Court of Proprietors was no more empowered to revoke or suspend the resolution of the directors approved by the Board of Control.

Charter Act of 1833

• The Governor-General of Bengal was made the Governor-General of India. The first Governor-General of India was William Bentinck.
• He was given legislative powers over entire India including the Governors of Bombay and Madras.
• The company lost the status of a commercial body and was made purely an administrative body.
• This Act. was the first law to distinguish between the executive and legislative powers of the Gov General.
• A 4th member was introduced who could only discuss and vote only on the legislative matter.
• Council of India = [(3+1) +  1(4th member also called the Law Member)]
• The first such Law Member was Macaulay. This Council of India was, to a certain extent, the Legislature. Strength of the Executive remained 3+1 .

Charter Act of 1853

• From here on, we see a gradual increase in the membership of the Council and further separation of powers.
• Access to compete in civil services for Indians.
• It brought out the separation in the legislative and executive functions of the Governor-General’s council.
• The 4th member (Law Member)was included as a full-time Member in the GG’s Executive Council. His position was taken by 6 Members referred to as Legislative Councillors.
• Council of India = [(4+1) + 6(Legislative Councillors) + 1 Commander-in-Chief]
• 6 Councillors were,
  1. 1 Chief Judge of SC of Calcutta.
  2. 1 Judge of SC of Calcutta
  3. 4 members of the ICS

Government of India Act, 1858

• India was to be governed by and in the name of the crown through Viceroy, who would be the representative of the crown in India.
• The designation of Governor-General of India was changed to Viceroy. Thus, Governor-General Lord Canning became the first Viceroy of India
• Board of Control and Board of directors were abolished transferring all their powers to British Crown
• A new office ‘secretary of state was created with a 15 member council of India to assist him. Indian Councils Act, 1861
• The major focus of the act was on administration in India. It was the first step to associate Indians to legislation.
• The act provided that the viceroy should nominate some Indians as non-official members in the legislative council.
• The legislative powers of Madras and Bombay presidencies were restored.
  It provided for the establishment of legislative councils for Bengal, North-Western Frontier Province (NWFP) and Punjab.
• Viceroy was empowered to issue ordinances during an emergency without the concurrence of the legislative council.

Indian Councils Act of 1861

• After 1861, the Council was called Imperial Legislative Council(ILC) or Indian Legislative Council(ILC). The Executive was further enhanced by 1 member.
• The Viceroy now had the power to Nominate 6 – 12 Non-Official members in the Legislature who would be holding the office for 2 years.
• ILC = [(5+1) + (Additional Members -> Minimum 6, Maximum 12)]
• The composition of Additional Members was as follows:
  1. 50% Nominated Official Members
  2. 50% Nominated Non-Official Members
• The Act thus sowed the seed for the future Legislative as an independent entity separate from the Executive Council.

Indian Councils Act of 1892 

• Due to the excessive demand of the Congress, the Additional Members were increased. Additional Members -> Minimum 10, Maximum 12.
• ILC = [(5+1) + (Additional Members -> Minimum 10, Maximum 16)]

The composition of Additional Members was as follows:

• Nominated official members (those nominated by the Governor-General and were government officials)
• 5 Nominated Non-Officials (nominated by the Governor-General but were not government officials)
• 4 Nominated by the Provincial Legislative Councils of Bengal Presidency, Bombay Presidency, Madras Presidency and North-Western Provinces.
• 1 Nominated by the Chamber of Commerce in Calcutta.

Indian Councils Act of 1909: The Morley-Minto reforms

• It introduced for the first time the method of election.
• The additional members of the Governor-General Council were increased from 16 to a maximum of 60.
• The composition of Additional Members was as follows:
  1. Nominated official members (those nominated by the Governor-General and were government officials)
  2. Nominated non-official members (nominated by the Governor-General but were not government officials)
  3. Elected Members (elected by different categories of Indian people)
• It provided for the association of Indians in the executive council of the Viceroy and Governors. Satyendra Prasad Sinha joined the Viceroy’s executive council as a law member.
• It introduced Separate Electorate for Muslims.

Indian Councils Act of 1919: The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms

• Central Legislature thereafter called the Indian Legislature was reconstituted on the enlarged and more representative character.
• The act set up bicameral legislatures at the centre consisting of two houses- the Council of the States (Upper House) and the Central Legislative Assembly (Lower House).
• It consisted of the Council of State consisted of 60 members of whom 34 members were elected and the Legislative Assembly consisted of about 145 members, of whom about 104 were elected and the rest nominated.
• Of the nominated members, about 26 were officials.  The powers of both the Chambers of the Indian Legislature were identical except that the power to vote supply was granted only to the Legislative Assembly.
• The central and provincial subjects were demarcated and separated.
• The Provincial subjects were further divided into Transferred Subjects and Reserved Subjects, the legislative council had no say in the latter. This was known as the system of Diarchy.
• The principle of separate electorate was further extended to Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians and Europeans.
• It provided for the appointment of a statutory commission to report the working of the act after ten years

The Government of India Act 1935

• It marked the next great stride in the evolution of the Legislatures.
• The Federal Legislature was to consist of two Houses, the House of Assembly called the Federal  Assembly and the Council of States.
• The Federal Assembly was to consist of 375 members, 250 to represent Provinces and 125 to represent the Indian States, nominated by the Rulers.
• The representatives of the Provinces were to be elected not directly but indirectly by the Provincial Assemblies.
• The term of the Assembly was fixed as five years.
• The Council of State was to be a permanent body not subject to dissolution, but one-third of the members should retire every three years.
• It was to consist of 260 members.  104 representatives of Indian States, six to be nominated by the Governor-General, 128 to be directly elected by territorial communal constituencies and 22 to be set apart for smaller minorities, women and depressed classes.
• The two Houses had in general equal powers but demands for supply votes and financial Bills were to originate in the Assembly.
• The principle of Separate Electorate was extended to depressed classes, women and workers.
• Provided for the formation of Reserve bank of India

Indian Independence Act, 1947

• The act formalized the Lord Mountbatten Plan regarding the independence of India on June 3, 1947.
• The Act ended the British rule in India and declared India as an independent and sovereign nation with effect from August 15, 1947.
• Provided for the partition of India into two dominions of India and Pakistan
• The office of Viceroy was abolished and a Governor-General was to be appointed in each of the dominions
• The Constituent Assemblies of the two dominions were to have powers to legislate for their respective territories.
• Princely states were free to join any of the two dominions or to remain independent.

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27th Apr 2021

• With almost absolute power the Governor-General and viceroy played a significant role in the shaping history of the country. Following are some of these important figures and significant events and major reforms carried out by them.

  Governor Generals of                            Bengal/India                     (Period)	Important events/Reforms
  Warren Hastings (1773-1785)	Regulating Act of 1773. First Governor-General of Bengal. End of the dual system of administration (1765-1772). Supreme Court at Calcutta. Wrote Introduction to the first English translation of Gita. Founded Madarasa Aliya at Calcutta.
  Lord Cornwallis (1786-1793)	Separation of three branches of service: commercial, judicial and revenue. Permanent Land Revenue Settlement of Bengal-1793. Reformed, modernised and rationalised the civil service. Introduced the Cornwallis Code. Sanskrit College, Varanasi.
  Lord Wellesley (1797-1805)	Introduction of Subsidiary Alliance System. Fourth Anglo-Mysore war. Fort William College, Calcutta.
  Lord Hastings (1813-1823)	Anglo-Nepal War-(1814-16) Third Anglo-Maratha War-(1817-19) and dissolution of Maratha confederacy. Introduction of Ryotwari System of Thomas Munro, Governor of Madras-1820.
  Lord William Bentinck (1828-1835)	Charter Act of 1833. Abolition of Sati-1829. Resolution of 1835 and Education reforms and introduction of English as the official language. The annexation of Mysore-1831, Coorg, and Central Cachar-1831.
  Lord Dalhousie (1848-1856)	Introduction of the Doctrine of Lapse and annexations of Satara-1848, Jaitpur and Sambhalpur-1849, Udaipur-1852, Jhansi-1853, Nagpur-1854 and Awadh-1856. Wood’s Dispatch of 1854. Railway Minute of 1853. Telegraph and Postal reforms. Widow Remarriage Act-1856.
  Lord Canning (1856-1857)	Establishment of universities at Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. Mutiny of 1857.

  Governor-General                            and          Viceroy of India                 (Period)	Important events/Reforms
  Lord Canning (1858-1862)	Transfer of control from East India Company to the Crown by the Government of India Act 1858 Indian Councils Act-1861
  Lord Mayo (1869-1872)	Opening of Rajkot College in Kathiawad and Mayo College at Ajmer for political training of Indian Princes. Statistical Survey of India was established. Department of Agriculture and Commerce was established. Introduction of state railways.
  Lord Lytton (1876-1880)	The great famine of 1876 affecting Bombay, Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, Central India and Punjab. Appointment of Famine Commission under the presidency of Richard Strachey. Vernacular Press Act was passed- 1878. The Arms Act-1878.
  Lord Ripon (1880-1884)	Education Commission 1882 under William Hunter-1882. Ilbert Bill controversy. Repeal of Vernacular Press Act in 1882. The First Factory Act in 1881 to improve labour conditions. Government resolution on local self government-1882.
  Lord Dufferin (1884-1888)	Establishment of Indian National Congress.
  Lord Lansdowne (1888-1894)	The categorisation of civil services into imperial, provincial and subordinate. Indian Councils Act-1892 Durand Commission (1893) was set up to define the Durand Line between India and Afghanistan.
  Lord Curzon (1899-1905)	Police Commission (1902) was appointed under Sir Andrew Frazer. University Commission (1902) was appointed and Universities Act (1904) was passed. Department of Commerce and Industry was established. Calcutta Corporation Act-1899 Partition of Bengal (1905).
  Lord Minto-II (1905-1910)	Popularisation of anti-partition and Swadeshi Movements. Split in Indian National Congress at Surat in 1907. Indian Muslim League was established by Aga Khan (1907) Morley-Minto reforms or Indian Councils Act 1909.
  Lord Hardinge-II (1910-1916)	Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi (1911). Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha (1915) by Madan Mohan Malviya.
  Lord Chelmsford (1916-1921)	Home Rule League was formed by Annie Besant and Tilak (1916) Lucknow session of Congress (1916). Lucknow Pact between Congress and Muslim League (1916). Champaran Satyagraha (1918), and Satyagraha at Ahmadabad (1918). Montague’s August Declaration. Government of Indian Act- 1919 Jallianwalla Bagh massacre (1919). Non-Cooperation and Khilafat Movements were launched. Foundation of Women’s University at Poona (1916) and Saddler’s Commission was appointed for reforms in educational policy. Appointment of S. P. Sinha as governor of Bihar first Indian to do so.
  Lord Reading (1921-1926)	The Chaura-Chauri Incident-Feb5, 1922 and withdrawal of Non-Cooperation movement. Moplah rebellion in Kerala (1921). Repeal of the Press Act of 1910 and Rowlatt Act of 1919. Kakori train robbery (1925) Establishment of Swaraj Party (1922). The decision to hold a simultaneous examination for ICS in Delhi and London with effect from 1923.
  Lord Irwin (1926-1931)	Simon Commission-1928 Appointment of the Harcourt Butler Indian States Commission (1927) Murder of Saunders and Bomb blast in the Assembly Hall of Delhi-1929 Lahore session of Congress 1929 and Purna Swaraj Resolution. Dandi March (12 March, 1929) and launch of Civil Disobedience Movement.
  Lord Willingdon (1931-1936)	Second Round Table Conference and failure of the conference, resumption of the Civil Disobedience Movement. Announcement of the Communal Award (1932). Poona Pact (1932) Third Round Table Conference 1932. The Government of India 1935. Establishment of All India Kisan Sabha 1936. Establishment of Congress Socialist Party by Acharya Narendra Dev and Jayaprakash Narayan (1934)
  Lord Linlithgow (1936-1944)	First general elections were held and Congress attained absolute majority (1936-1937). Congress ministers resigned (1937) after the outbreak of WW-II Subhash Chandra Bose elected as the president of Congress-1938. Lahore Resolution by Muslim League for the demand of separate state for Muslims. August Offer by the viceroy-1940. Cripp’s Mission to India Passing of the Quit India Resolution by Congress-1942
  Lord Wavell (1944-1947)	C Rajgopalachari’s CR Formula (1944) and Gandhi-Jinnah Talks failed. Wavell Plan and the Shimla Conference (1942) Cabinet Mission and Congress accepted its plan 1946 Observance of the ‘Direct Action Day’ (16 August 1946) by the Muslim League. Elections to the Constituent Assembly and formation of Interim Government by the Congress (September 1946). Announcement of the end of British rule in India by Clement Attlee on February 20, 1946
  Lord Mountbatten (1947-48)	June Third Plan (June 3, 1947) announced. Introduction of Indian Independence Bill in the House of Commons. Appointment of two boundary commissions under Sir Cyril Radcliff for the partition of Bengal and Punjab.

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26th Apr 2021

First Amendment Act, 1951

• Empowered the state to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and economically backward classes.
• Provided for the saving of laws providing for the acquisition of estates, etc.
• Added Ninth Schedule to protect the land reforms and other laws included in it from the judicial review. After Article 31, Articles 31A and 31B were inserted.

The Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act, 1956

• The Seventh Amendment brought about the most comprehensive changes so far in the Constitution. This amendment was designed to implement the State Reorganisation Act.
• The Second and Seventh schedules were substantially amended for the purpose of the States Reorganization Act.

Constitutional (10th Amendment) Act, 1961

• The Tenth Amendment integrates the areas of Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli with the Union of India and provides for their administration under the regulation of making powers of the President.

Constitutional (13th Amendment) Act,1963

• Gave the status of a state to Nagaland and made special provisions for it.

The Constitution (24th Amendment) Act, 1971

• It amended Article 13 and 368 with a view to removing all possible doubts regarding the power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure thereof.
• It gets over the Golak Nath ruling and asserts the power of Parliament, denied to in the Golak Nath, to amend Fundamental Rights.

The Constitution (Twenty-fifth) Amendment Act, 1971

• The 25th amendment of the Constitution in 1971 added a new clause, Article 31C to the Constitution. Up to 1971, the position was that Fundamental Rights prevailed over the Directive Principles of State Policy and that a law enacted to implement a Directive Principle could not be valid if it conflicted with a Fundamental Right.
• Article 31C sought to change this relationship to some extent by conferring primacy on Articles 39(b) and 39(c) over Articles 14, 19 and 31.

Twenty-Sixth Amendment Act, 1971

• Abolished the privy purses and privileges of the former rulers of princely states.

The Constitution (Thirty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1974

• By this amendment twenty State Acts concerning land ceiling and land tenure reforms were added to the Ninth Schedule to the Constitution.

The Constitution (Thirty-eight Amendment) Act, 1975 

• Made the declaration of emergency by the President non-justiciable.
• Made the promulgation of ordinances by the President, governors and administrators of Union territories non-justiciable.
• Empowered the President to declare different proclamations of national emergency on different grounds simultaneously

The Constitution (42nd Amendment) Act, 1976

• The Amendment was meant to enhance enormously the strength of the Government. The major Amendments made in the Constitution by the 42nd Amendment Act are: Preamble The characterization of India as ‘Sovereign Democratic Republic’ has been changed to ‘Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic’.
• The words ‘Unity of the nation’ have been changed to ‘Unity and integrity of the nation’.
• Parliament and State Legislatures: The life of the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies was extended from 5 to 6 years.
• Executive: It amended Article 74 to State explicitly that the President shall act in accordance with the advice of the Council of Ministers in the discharge of his functions.
• Judiciary: The 42nd Amendment Act inserted Article 32A in order to deny the Supreme Court the power to consider the Constitutional validity of the State law. Another new provision, Article 131A, gave the Supreme Court an exclusive jurisdiction to determine question relating to the Constitutional validity of a central laws. Article 144A and Article 128A, the creatures
  of the Constitutional Amendment Act made further innovation in the area of judicial review of the Constitutionality of legislation. Under Article 144A, the minimum number of judges of the Supreme Court to decide a question of  Constitutional validity of a Central or State law was fixed as at least seven and further, this required two-thirds majority of the judges sitting declare law as unconstitutional. While the power  of the High Court to enforce Fundamental Rights remained untouched, several restrictions were imposed on its power to issue writs ‘for any other purpose’.
• Federalism: The Act added Article 257A in the Constitution to enable the Centre to deploy any armed force of the Union, or any other force under its control for dealing with any grave situation of law and order in any State.
• Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles: A major change that was made by42nd Constitutional Amendment was to give primacy to all Directive Principles over the Fundamental Rights contained in Articles 14, 19 or 31.
• The 42nd Constitutional Amendment added a few more Directive Principles – free legal aid, participations of workers in the management of industries, protection for environment and protection of forests and wildlife of the country.
• Fundamental Duties: The 42nd Amendment Act inserted Article 51-A to create a new part called IV-A in the Constitution, which prescribed the Fundamental Duties to the citizens.
• Emergency: Prior to the 42nd Amendment Act, the President could declare an emergency under Article 352 throughout the country and not in a part of the country alone. The Act authorized the President to proclaim emergency in any part of the country.

The Constitution (44th Amendment) Act, 1978

• It reduced the life of Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies again to five years and thus restore the status quo ante.
• It cancelled 39th Amendment which had deprived the Supreme Court of its jurisdiction to decide disputes concerning election of the President and the Vice-President
• A new provision was added to Article 74(1) saying that the President could require the council of ministers to reconsider its advice to him, either generally or otherwise and the President should Act in accordance with the advice tendered after such re-consideration. Article 257A was Omitted
• It has been provided that an Emergency can be proclaimed only on the basis of written advice tendered to the President by the Cabinet.
• Right to Property has been taken out from the list of Fundamental Rights and has been declared a legal right.

The Constitution (Fifty-first Amendment) Act, 1984

• The Amendment effectuates some changes in Articles 330 and 332 with a view to provide for reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha for Scheduled Tribes in Meghalaya, Aruncahal Pradesh and Mizoram, as well as in the Legislative Assemblies of Nagaland and Meghalaya.

The Constitution (52nd Amendment) Act, 1985

• The amendment is designed to prevent the scourge of defection of Members of Parliament and State Legislatures from one political party to another.

 The Constitution (61st Amendment) Act, 1989

• The 61st Amendment reduces the voting age from 21 years to 18 years for the Lok Sabha and Assembly election.

The Constitution (Sixty-fifth Amendment) Act, 1990

• Article 338 of the Constitution has been amended for the Constitution of a National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes consisting of a chairperson, vice-chairperson and five other members who shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal.

The Constitution (Sixty-ninth Amendment) Act, 1991

• The Amendment Act was to grant Statehood to Delhi as ‘National Capital Territory of Delhi’. It also provides a 70 member assembly and a 7 member Council of Ministers for Delhi.

 The Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992

• April 20,1993 as it got rectification by the State legislatures and was assented to by the President of India. After notification, the Panchayati Raj Institutions have now got Constitutional legitimacy.
• After part VIII of the Constitution, a separate part IX has been added to the Constitution with the addition in Article 243A and fresh Schedule called Eleventh Schedule enumerating the powers and functions of Panchayti Raj Institutions.
• The Act provides for Gram Sabha, a three-tier model of Panchayati Raj, reservation of seats for SCs and STs in proportion to their population and one-third reservation of seats for women.

The Constitution (74th Amendment) Act, 1992

• The Act provides constitutional status to Urban Local Bodies. After part VIII of the Constitution, a separate part IXA has been added to the Constitution with the addition in Article 243A and a fresh schedule called Twelfth schedule enumerating the powers and functions of urban local bodies has been incorporated.
• The Act provides Municipal Panchayat, Municipal Council and Municipal Corporation, reservation of seats for SCs and STs in proportion to their population and one-third reservation of seats for women

The Constitution (76th Amendment) Act, 1994

• This Amendment Act raises the reservation quota of government jobs and seats for admission in the educational institutions in favor of socially and educationally backward classes to 69 per cent in Tamil Nadu.
• Further, the Amendment Act has been included in the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution to exempt it from the purview of judicial scrutiny

The Constitution (Seventy-seventh Amendment) Act, 1995

• This Amendment has added a new clause (4-a) to Article 16 of the Constitution which empowers the State to make any provisions for reservation in promotions in Government jobs in favour of SCs and STs, if it is of opinion that they are inadequately represented in the services under the State.
• This has been done to nullify the effect of the Supreme Court Judgment in the Mandal Commission Case (Indra Sawhney vs. Union of India) in which the Court has held that reservation in promotions cannot be made.

The Constitution (80th Amendment) Act, 2000

• Based on the recommendations of the Tenth Finance Commission, an alternative scheme for sharing taxes between the Union and the State has been enacted by the Constitution (Eightieth Amendment) Act, 2000.
• Under the new scheme of devolution of revenue between Union and the States, 26 per cent out of gross proceeds of Union taxes and duties is to be assigned to the States in lieu of their existing share in the income-tax, excise duties special excise duties and grants in lieu of tax on railway passenger fares. 

The Constitution (85^th Amendment) Act, 2001

• This Act amended Article 16 (4A) of the Constitution to provide for consequential seniority in the case of promotion by virtue of rule of reservation for Government servants belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.

The Constitution (86^th Amendment) Act, 2002

• With a view to making right to free and compulsory education a fundamental right, the Act inserts a new Article, namely, Article 21A conferring on all children in the age group of 6 to 14 years the right to free and compulsory education.
• The Act amends in Part-III, Part –IV and Part-IV(A) of the Constitution.

The Constitution (89^th Amendment) Act, 2003

• The Act adds Article 338A and provides for the creation of National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.

 The Constitution (90^th Amendment) Act, 2003

• The Act amends Article 332 and adds section (6) regarding representation in the Bodo Territorial Areas District in the State of Assam.

The Constitution (Ninety-one Amendment) Act,2003

• The Act makes provisions for limiting the size of the Council of Ministers at the Center and in the States and gives teeth to debar a defector from holding any remunerative political post for the remaining tenure of the legislature unless reelected.

The Constitution (Ninety- third Amendment) Act, 2005

• Providing reservation for the socially and educationally backward classes, besides the Schedules Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, in private unaided educational institutions.

The Constitution (97th Amendment) Act, 2012

• In Part IIIof the constitution, after the words “or unions” the words “Cooperative Societies” was added.
• In Part IVa new Article 43Bwas inserted, which says: The state shall endeavour to promote voluntary formation, autonomous functioning, democratic control and professional management of the co-operative societies”.
• After Part IXAof the constitution, a Part IXBwas inserted to accommodate state vs centre roles.

The Constitution (99th Amendment) Act, 2014

• The National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) was established by the Union government of India by amending the constitution of India through the 99^th Constitutional Amendment Act, 201

The Constitution (100th Amendment) Act, 2015

• Constitution (100th Amendment) Act 2015 ratified the land boundary agreement between India and Bangladesh.
• The act amended the 1st schedule of the constitution to exchange the disputed territories occupied by both the nations in accordance with the 1974 bilateral Land Boundary Agreement.
• India received 51 Bangladeshi enclaves (covering 7,110 acres) in the Indian mainland, while Bangladesh received 111 Indian enclaves (covering 17,160 acres) in the Bangladeshi mainland

The Constitution (101st Amendment) Act, 2017

• Introduced the Goods and Services Tax.

The Constitution (102nd Amendment) Act, 2018

• Constitutional status to National Commission for Backward Classes

The Constitution (103rd Amendment) Act, 2019

• A maximum of 10% Reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWSs) of citizens of classes other than the classes mentioned in clauses (4) and (5) of Article 15, i.e. Classes other than socially and educationally backward classes of citizens or the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
• Inserted Clause [6] under Article 15 as well as Inserted Clause [6] under Article 16.

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24th Apr 2021

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