Conservation of Wildlife:

1. The Government of India enacted Wild Life (Protection) Act 1972 with the objective of effectively protecting the wild life of this country and to control poaching, smuggling and illegal trade in wildlife and its derivatives.

• The act extends to the whole of India except J&K which has its own wildlife act.
• It has 6 schedules which give varying degrees of protection.
  • Schedule I and part II of Schedule II provide absolute protection and offences under these are prescribed the highest penalties.
  • The penalties for Schedule III and Schedule IV are less and these animals are protected.
  • Schedule V includes the animals which may be hunted. These are the Common crow, Fruit bats, Mice & Rats only.
  • Schedule VI contains the plants, which are prohibited from cultivation and planting.

2. A National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), chaired by the Prime Minister of India provides for policy framework for wildlife conservation in the country.

3. The National Wildlife Action Plan (2002-2016) was adopted in 2002, emphasizing the people’s participation and their support for wildlife conservation. The Draft National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) 2017-31 envisages 17 focus areas, including a new area linking wildlife planning to climate change.

4. The Indian Constitution entails the subject of forests and wildlife in the Concurrent list thus laying the responsibility of wildlife conservation on both the Centre and the State. The Federal Ministry acts as a guiding torch dealing with the policies and planning on wildlife conservation, while the provincial Forest Departments are vested with the responsibility of implementation of national policies and plans.

5. Specialized projects: To save the endangered species of animals, specialised projects are being implemented with international cooperation (WWF, UNDP, UNEP, IUCN) as well as on a stand-alone basis e.g.

• Project Tiger 1973 [Follow the news story here for latest developments]
• Operation Crocodile 1975
• Project Rhinoceros 1987
• Project Snow Leopard
• Project Elephant 1988

More recently, the Black Buck (chinkara), the Great Indian Bustard (godawan) and the snow leopard etc. have been given full or partial legal protection against hunting and trade throughout India.

6. The Protected Areas of India:

Protected areas are those in which human occupation or at least the exploitation of resources is limited. These are defined according to the categorization guidelines for protected areas by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the enabling laws of each country or the regulations of the international organizations involved.

There are 4 categories of the Protected Areas in India viz,

• National Parks,
• Sanctuaries,
• Conservation Reserves, and
• Community Reserves.

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Let’s look at these in detail:

• National Park:
  • A National park is an area with enough ecological, geo-morphological and natural significance with rich fauna and flora, which is designed to protect and to develop wildlife or its environment.
  • National parks in India are IUCN category II protected areas.
  • Activities like grazing, hunting, forestry or cultivation etc. are strictly prohibited. No human activity is permitted inside the national park except for the ones permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state.
  • India’s first national park was established in 1936 as Hailey National Park, now known as Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand.
  • There are 103 existing national parks in India covering an area of 40,500 km2, which is 1.23% of the geographical area of the country (National Wildlife Database, April 2015). [For a complete list of national parks in India and their associated fauna, click here.]

• Wildlife Sanctuary:
  • Any area other than area comprised with any reserve forest or the territorial waters can be notified by the State Government to constitute as a sanctuary if such area is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural. or zoological significance, for the purpose of protecting, propagating or developing wildlife or its environment.
  • The difference between a Sanctuary and a National Park mainly lies in the vesting of rights of people living inside. Unlike a Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are allowed. No grazing of any livestock is permitted inside a National Park while in a Sanctuary, the Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control or prohibit it.
  • There are a total of 537 wildlife sanctuaries in India.

• Conservation reserves and community reserves in India:
  • These terms denote the protected areas of India which typically act as buffer zones to or connectors and migration corridors between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of India.
  • Such areas are designated as Conservation Reserves if they are uninhabited and completely owned by the Government of India but used for subsistence by communities and Community Reserves if a part of the lands is privately owned.
  • These protected area categories were first introduced in the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002 − the amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
  • These categories were added because of reduced protection in and around existing or proposed protected areas due to private ownership of land, and land use.

7. Biosphere Reserves: A biosphere reserve is an area of land or water that is protected by law in order to support the conservation of ecosystems, as well as the sustainability of mankind’s impact on the environment.

• Each reserve aims to help scientists and the environmental community figure out how to protect the world’s plant and animal species while dealing with a growing population and its resource needs.
• To carry out the complementary activities of biodiversity conservation and sustainable use of natural resources, biosphere reserves are traditionally organized into 3 interrelated zones, known as:
  • the core area,
  • the buffer zone, and
  • a transition zone or ‘area of cooperation.

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• The purpose of the formation of the biosphere reserve is to conserve in situ all forms of life, along with its support system, in its totality, so that it could serve as a referral system for monitoring and evaluating changes in natural ecosystems.
• Presently, there are 18 notified biosphere reserves in India. Ten out of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list. [Related Reading: Everything about biosphere reserves explained here. A complete list of biosphere reserves in India and their fauna types can be found here!]

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How is a biosphere reserve different from a national park/ wildlife sanctuary?

Biosphere Reserves of India protect larger areas of natural habitat (than a National Park or Wildlife Sanctuary). Biosphere Reserves may cover multiple National Parks, Sanctuaries and reserves as well.

Ex. the Nilgiri Biosphere covers: Bandipur National park, Mudumalai Tiger Reserve, Silent Valley National Park, Nagarhole National Park, Mukurthi National Park and is usually a contiguous area.

Some of the other differences are listed in the image below:

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8. Some other important Conservation Sites:

• Tiger reserves – Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India in the year 1973 to save the endangered species of tiger in the country. Starting from nine (9) reserves in 1973 the number has now grown up to fifty (50) in 2016.
• Elephant reserves
• RAMSAR Wetland Sites [Related Reading: Everything that you need to know about Wetlands, A complete list of RAMSAR wetland sites in India can be found here]
• UNESCO World Heritage Sites (Natural, Cultural and Mixed) – Places listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization as of special cultural or physical significance.
• Marine Protected Areas
• Important Bird Areas

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9. Role of communities: Communities have played a vital role in the conservation and protection of wildlife in India. E.g.

• Sariska Tiger Reserve: In Sariska tiger reserve Rajasthan villagers have fought against mining by citing the wildlife protection act. In many areas, villagers themselves are protecting habitats and explicitly rejecting government involvement.
• Bhairodev Dakav Sonchuri: The inhabitants of five villages in the Alwar district of Rajasthan have declared 1200 hectares of forests as the Bhairodev Dakav Sonchuri declaring their own set of riles and regulation which do not allow hunting, and are protecting the wildlife against any outside encroachments.
• Bishnoi villages: In and around Bishnoi villages in Rajasthan, herds of blackbuck, Nilgai and peacocks can be seen as an integral part of the community and nobody harms them.

In this article, we continue the discussion and look at various conservation attempts made to protect the Indian forests.

Conservation of Forests:

1. The National Forest Policy:

• The National Forest Policy 1952 aimed at bringing one-third of the total land area with 65% in hilly and 25% in plains under the forest cover. It suggested the extension of tree lands on river/canal banks, roads, railways, cultivable waste and degraded lands.
• A new forest policy was adopted in 1988 the main emphasis of which was on the protection, conservation, regeneration, and development of forests.

2. Social Forestry:

• The term, social forestry, was first used in India in 1976 by The National Commission on Agriculture. It was then that India embarked upon a social forestry project with the objective of taking the pressure off the traditional forests by the plantation of fuelwood, fodder, timber and grasses on unused and fallow land.
• What social forestry means – Social Forestry refers to the forests (trees) planted by the people of a society. It has been defined as ‘the forestry of the people, for the people, by the people’.

Although a wide range of activities are included in social forestry, these mainly have the following components:

• Agro Forestry – Encouraging Farmers to plant trees on their farms. Read more about it here.
• Extension Forestry – Woodlots planted by forest departments for the needs of the community especially along roads, canals, railways, and other public lands
• Community Forestry – Trees planted by the community themselves, on community lands, to be shared equally by them.
• Reforestation or rehabilitation of degraded forest areas.

The social forestry projects, however, failed because:

• They did not involve women who were the main beneficiaries.
• Market-oriented trees were planted. Thus communities and farmers saw it as a cash generating rather than basic need generating exercise. The wood ended up for urban and industrial use rather than fuel and fodder needs of the rural people.
• Agro-forestry reduced land employment while absentee landlordism increased.

3. Several laws have been passed by legislatures to regulate the use of forests, ban on cutting of trees and encroachment on forest lands:

• Forest Conservation Act, 1980 was passed for reserved forest areas.
• Environmental Protection Act gave the Central Government powers to protect and improve the quality of the environment and preventing pollution.
• The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, recognises the rights of forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers over the forest areas inhabited by them and provides a framework for according the same.

[Related Reading: Evolution of Forest Rights in India from 1856 to 2006 | In Depth Analysis of FRA & Its Issues]

Besides, international conventions like Reducing Emissions through Deforestation and Degradation plus (REDD+) help to set guidelines.

4. At present there are two major afforestation schemes namely:

• National Afforestation Programme – NAP (Aimed at afforestation and eco-restoration of degraded forests and adjoining areas with emphasis on community participation)
• National Mission for a Green India (Aimed at increasing the forest cover of country along with improving its quality)
  • Commonly called the Green India Mission (GIM)
  • Launched in February 2014
  • It is one of the eight Missions outlined under India’s action plan for addressing the challenge of climate change -the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC). GIM.
  • There is a component under GIM to support forestry on farm lands for taking up Agro-forestry and Social forestry.

[Note: Generally a “mission mode” project implies a project that has clearly defined objectives, scopes, implementation timelines and milestones, as well as measurable outcomes and service levels.]

5. Other Government Initiatives:

• National Green Highways Mission
  • Launched in July 2016
  • The mission aims to provide a green canopy along 100,000km of highways and create jobs for 1 million youth.
  • Under the mission, the government has made it mandatory to set aside 1% of the total project cost of any national highway contract to a Green Fund for plantation.
• Nagar Van-udyan Yojana
  • A programme for climate smart green cities.
  • It is a Pilot scheme recently launched for implementation for a period of five Years.
  • The scheme aims at developing 200 Nagar Van (City Forests) across the country in cities having Municipal Corporation or Municipalities.
  • A Nagar Van-Udyan is a forested area in the vicinity of a city accessible to the city dwellers suitably managed for providing a wholesome natural environment for recreation, conservation education, biodiversity conservation etc.
• School Nursery Yojana
  • It seeks to bring students closer to nature and inculcate in them a sense of urgency to protect the environment.
  • Under the scheme, students will sow seeds and grow saplings in the school nursery as part of their practical exercise for Biology classes or as their extra-curricular activities.
  • The students will also carry out a tree census in their school and the locality.

Read more about the School Nursery Yojana here.

6. The Role of communities: Communities have played a vital role in the conservation and protection of forests in India. E.g.

• Chipko movement: – Chipko Movement, started in 1970’s, was a non-violent movement aimed at protection and conservation of trees and forests from being destroyed. The name of the Chipko moment originated from the word ’embrace’ as the villagers used to hug the trees and protect them from wood cutters from cutting them. This movement headed by Shri Sunderlal Bahaguna in the Himalayas not only successfully resisted deforestation in several areas but also showed that community afforestation with indigenous species can be enormously successful.
• Appiko Movement – On the lines of Chipko movement, Pandurang Hegde launched the Appiko Movement in Karnataka in 1983 (Appiko – to express one’s affection for a tree by embracing it). Its objectives were afforestation as well as development, conservation and proper utilization of forests in the best manner.
• Silent Valley Movement – The silent valley is an area of tropical evergreen forests in Kerala. It is among the last tracts of virgin tropical evergreen forest in India and is very rich in bio-diversity. The environmentalists and the local people strongly objected to the hydel power project being set up here in 1973. Under pressure, the government had to declare it a national reserve forest in 1985.
• Joint forest management: – this programme furnishes a good example for involving local communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests. The programme has been in formal existence since 1988 when the state of Orissa passed the first resolution for joint forest management. JFM depends on the formation of local (village) institutions that undertake protection activities mostly on degrade forest land managed by the forest department. In return, the members of these communities are entitled to intermediary benefits like non – timber forests produce and share in the timber harvested by successful protection.
• Certain societies revere a particular tree which they have preserved from time immemorial. E.g. the Mundas and the Santhals of Chhotanagpur region worship Mahua and Kadamba trees and the tubes of Orissa and Bihar worship theTamarind and many trees during weddings.

The Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra, which changes with altitude. When we look at the vegetational zones, the eastern Himalayas are similar to the western Himalayas.

But on the whole, the eastern Himalayas have more tropical elements, a greater variety of Oaks and Rhododendrons and less of conifers than the western Himalayas.

Some other differences are:

• The higher rainfall and warmer conditions in this part of the Himalayas.
• Also, the tree line and the snow line are higher in the eastern Himalayas than the corresponding lines in the western Himalayas (Recall the discussion on snowline? Click here to quickly revise!).
• Species diversity and vegetation density are also higher in the East.

Also, the southern slopes of the Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover because of relatively higher precipitation than the drier north-facing slopes.

Some other ways of classifying forests:

1. Classification according to composition:

• Coniferous Forests: These are temperate forests occupying about 6.50% of the total forest area of the country. These are confined to the Himalayan ranges and provide soft wood timber.
• Broad-Leaved Forests: These are tropical and subtropical monsoon forests. These are widely spread and cover 94% of the total forest area of the country. These are found in the plains, plateaus and mountainous areas of the country. Sal, Teak and Bamboo are important varieties.

2. Legal or Administrative Classification:

Broadly speaking, reserved, protected and unclassed are the three major legal classes of forest in India. A legal notification in a government gazette under Indian Forest Act creates or defines the boundaries of “reserved and “protected” forests in India. These forests by definition are owned by government. The rest of forests areas or waste land or any other land “recorded” in land records as “forest” but not notified in government gazette as “reserved” or “protected” forests under Indian Forest Act, are called unclassed forests. The status of their ownership and control varies among various States in India.

• Reserved Forests:
  • These forests are under the direct supervision of the government and no public entry is allowed for the collection of timber or grazing of cattle.
  • About 53 % of total forest area falls in this category.
  • Reserved forests are regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forests and wildlife is concerned.
  • In such forests, most of the activities are prohibited unless allowed.
• Protected Forests:
  • These forests are looked after by the government but the local people are allowed to collect fuelwood/timber and graze their cattle without causing serious damage to the forests.
  • These occupy 29% of the total forest area of the country.
  • In such forests, most of the activities are allowed unless prohibited.
• Unclassed/Unclassified Forests:
  • There is no restriction on cutting of trees and cattle grazing.
  • These occupy 18% of the total forest area of the country.
  • These are the other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private individuals and communities.
  • All north-eastern states and parts of Gujarat have a very high percentage of their forests as unclassed forests managed by local communities.

Reserved and protected forests are referred to as permanent forest estates because they are maintained for the purpose of producing timber and other forest produce, and for protective reasons

3. The Forest Survey of India classifies forest cover in 4 classes:

• Very Dense forest: All lands with tree cover (including mangrove cover) of canopy density of 70% and above.
• Moderately dense forest: All lands with tree cover (including mangrove cover) of canopy density between 40% and 70%.
• Open forests: All lands with tree cover (including mangrove cover) of canopy density between 10% and 40%.
• Scrubs: All forest lands with poor tree growth mainly of small or stunted trees having canopy density less than 10%

The moderately dense and very dense forests are called Prime forests. Non-Forests are the lands not included in any of the above classes.

Forest Cover in India:

According to the India State of Forest Report 2015, forests cover 21.34% of the total geographical area of the country (Road more about the report here!).

Some other facts:

• Out of the total forest cover, the maximum share is of Moderate Dense Forests, followed by Open Forests.
• Also, Madhya Pradesh has the largest total forest cover, followed by Arunachal Pradesh and Chhattisgarh.
• Mizoram, with 88.93 % of forest cover has the highest forest cover in percentage terms, followed by Lakshadweep.

The Problems of Indian Forestry:

The specific problems of the Indian Forestry are the following:

1. Low Forest Cover

The forest cover in India is only 21.34% against the world average of about 35% and the stipulated 33% under the National Forest Policy 1952. The states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan have less than 5% of their areas under forests. Forest area is decreasing due to deforestation on account of:

• Growing demand for agricultural land.
• Urbanisation and industrialisation
• Construction of multipurpose projects
• Commercial activities like mining, quarrying, oil extraction, orchard development etc.
• Shifting cultivation – Increasing pressure of population has reduced the jhum cycle to only 5 years in many parts of Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and Manipur. Consequently, the forests do not have sufficient time to regenerate.
• Overgrazing by cattle
• Transhumance i.e. seasonal migration by nomadic tribes up and down the mountains.

2. Uneconomic utilisation of forests:

• Most of the forests are not gregarious i.e. usable plants not growing close enough. This creates a problem in their exploitation.
• 40% of the total forest area is inaccessible.
• Lumbering, transport and sawing of timber is still done by primitive techniques.
• Lack of scientific techniques of growing forests as in Canada, Russia. Only natural growth of forests takes place in India

3. Forest Fires – Natural and manmade.

4. Plant diseases, pests, insects

4. Subtropical Vegetation

A. Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests:

• Distribution: These forests occur on the lower slopes of the Himalaya in Bengal and Assam and on other hill ranges such as Khasi, Nilgiri, Mahabaleshwar, Pachmarhi, Amarkantak and Parasnath.
• Important Species: In the eastern Himalayas, Oak, Chestnut, Ash, Birch, Pine are common species.

B. Sub-tropical Pine Forest

• Distribution: Subtropical chir pine forest occurs throughout the central and western Himalaya, and Khasi pine forest occurs in Khasi hills.
• Important Species: In the western Himalayas Chir Pine is the most important tree while Oak occurs in the wetter areas. In drier areas of Kashmir (rainfall 50-100cm) wild Olives are common with varieties of scrub.
• Chief Characteristics:
  1. These forests are almost pure throughout their zone of distribution.
  2. The understorey is also not pronounced.

C. Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forest

• Distribution: These forests occur in areas with low rainfall and consist of xerophytic, thorny and small-leaved evergreen species. Such forests are localised in the north-west corner of the country.

5. Temperate Vegetation

A. Himalayan Dry Temperate Vegetation

• Distribution: It is found in the inner dry ranges of the western Himalayas.
• Characteristic Features: It is predominantly a coniferous forest with xerophytic scrubs. Epiphytes and climbers are rare. [Coniferous trees are tall, straight with narrow needle like leaves. Most of the coniferous trees are evergreen but some like Larch are deciduous in nature]
• Important Species are Chilgoza, Deodar, Oak, Maple, Ash, Olive etc.

B. Himalayan Moist Temperate Vegetation

• Distribution: In the western Himalayas between 1500m and 3000m.
• Characteristic Features: The trees are 30 to 50m tall and undergrowth is mostly evergreen. Mosses and ferns grow freely on trees.
• Important Species: Deodar, Spruce, Maple, Walnut, Poplar, Cedar, Chestnut, Birch, Oak etc.

C. Montane Wet Temperate Vegetation

• Distribution: In the eastern Himalayas, evergreen wet temperate forests occur between 1800m and 2700m of altitude. Nilgiris, the Annamalai and the Palni hills of south India also have this kind of forests above 1500m of altitude. The trees there are shorter, and the undergrowth is denser with abundance of epiphytes, mosses and ferns.
• Characteristic Features: Rainfall is high, temperature is moderate in summer, and winter is cold. Rate of evaporation is not high. So trees do not shed their leaves annually, at least not at the same time.
• Important Species: Oak, Poplar, Elm, Laurel, Maple, Birch, Alder, Magnolia

6. Sub-Alpine and Alpine Vegetation

• Distribution: It occurs above 2700m of altitude in the eastern Himalayas and above 3000m in the western Himalayas.
• Important Species: It is a dense scrubby forest of Silver Fur, Juniper, Pine, Birch and Rhododendron.
• Characteristic Features:
  1. The alpine forests give way to alpine grasslands through shrubs and scrub. These extend upwards up to the snowline.
  2. Bugyals: Bugyals are high altitude alpine grasslands or meadows in Uttaranchal (at an elevation between 3400m and 4000m). These are referred to as ‘nature’s own gardens’. The topography of the terrain is either flat or sloped. The surface of these bugyals is covered with natural green grass and seasonal flowers. They are used by tribal herdsmen to graze their cattle. During the winter season the alpine meadows remain snow-covered. During summer months, the Bugyals present a riot of beautiful flowers and grass. Bugyals have a very fragile ecosystem. Some examples of Bugyals:
     • Auli (near Joshimath) – A premier skii range is located here.
     • Gorso
     • Kwanri Bugyal
     • Bedni
     • Panwali and Kush Kalyan
     • Dayara
     • Munsiyari Bugyal

Auli Bugyal during summers

Auli Bugyal during winters

7. Littoral and Swamp Vegetation ( Mangrove Vegetation/ Tidal Forests)

• Distribution: In the tidal deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna rivers, evergreen mangrove vegetation thrives. These areas have rainfall of more than 200cm.
• Important Tree Species: Sundari, Agar, Bhendi, Keora, Nipa
• Important Animal Species: Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes are the common animals found in these forests. Royal Bengal Tiger is found in the tidal forests of Ganga delta.
• Characteristic Features:
  • The trees are mainly evergreen. Typically they produce tangled webs of arching roots that are exposed during low tides.
  • This vegetation is an adaptation to two conditions:
    • High water salinity
    • Flooded at regular intervals
  • Prominent among these adaptations are the presence of stilt roots, buttress, pneumatophores etc.
    • Stilt roots (also called prop roots)- Stilt roots outgrow the trunk of the mangrove, branches or already existing stilt roots. As soon as stilt roots reach the ground the tip of the stilt root develops an underground root system with which it connects the stilt root into the ground and then develops one or more further stilt roots which grow arcuately into the air to again run into the ground to develop an underground root system, this process repeats several times.
      

      

      Source

    • Buttress Roots – Buttress roots, developed by many trees concerning mangroves, provide stability to huge trees. The buttress roots can grow up to 10 meters in height. Buttress roots, also called buttresses do not continue their growth underground as they do above, underground buttresses develop a huge amount of small roots that grow in the soil under the buttress root.
      

      

      Source

    • Pneumatophores – Because of waterlogged conditions, the roots are deprived of oxygen during high tides. Some mangrove roots extend vertically above the ground. These specialised roots are known as pneumatophores. These have pores which enable the trees to breathe when other roots are submerged under water during high tide.
      

      

      Source

      

      Sunderbans breathing roots

      

      Source

  • Mangrove shrubs, known best for a thriving aquatic life nurtured within their mesh of stilt-roots also serve a vital socio-economic function. They act as “green shields” buffering the coastline against sea erosion, and the potentially devastating impacts of cyclones and tsunami.
  • Mangroves support livelihood, essentially aquaculture, they supply medicinal plants, and fuel wood and construction materials. And in terms of ecological services, they stabilise shorelines, are nurseries for fishbreeding and filter heavy metals.

Note:

A study in November 2014 found mangrove patches in Karnataka. The Forest Survey of India missed recording these mangrove patches earlier as they were not large. According to the study, Karnataka has 300 hectares of mangrove forests spread over 3 coastal districts and a vibrant saline water ecosystem generally associated with India’s east coast. At the confluence of 4 rivers – Aghanashini, Gangavali, Sharavati and Venkatpura; and the Arabian Sea, is a long stretch of dense and tall mangrove vegetation locally known as Kandla or Sundar (Sundar is a well-known species of trees in mangrove forests after which the Sunderbans have been named). The study notes that while mangroves have been declining in several parts of the world from timber harvesting and pollution, these forests in Karnataka have in fact grown spatially over the last two decades.

Grasslands in India:

Owing to a short monsoon season followed by a long hot dry season, grasslands equivalent to Steppe/Pampas/Savanna are absent in India. The closed deciduous forest grades into thorny forest without an intermediate park like stage, and there is no steppe type of Grassland between the woodland and the desert.

But locally available types of grassland are:

1. Hilly/Upland Grassland:
   • Himalayas (generally above 1000m height)
   • Deccan Plateau Hills (Western Ghats in Karnataka where forests have been cleared)
   • Nilgiris have extensive grassy slopes (grass is often found interspersed with small isolated ‘shola’ forests*).
2. Low Lands: in the plains of Punjab, Haryana, UP, Assam and Bihar.
3. Riverine Grasses: These are found along the banks of the rivers which provide grazing facilities to cattle especially the bhabar pastures in northern India.

*‘Sholas’ are the mixed dense forests of tropical evergreen and temperate evergreen rainforest species in the Nilgiri Hills. The patches of shola forests are found mainly in valleys and are usually separated from one another by undulating montane grassland. The shola and grassland together form the shola-grassland complex or mosaic.

Now that we are done with the vegetation types of India, expand the following image for a quick revision!

Moving on, let’s discuss the various natural vegetation types of India in detail:

1. Tropical Evergreen Forests

‘Evergreen’ because there is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition. As such these forests appear green all the year round.

The common animals found in these forests are elephants, monkey, lemur and deer. The one-horned rhinoceros are found in the jungles of Assam and West Bengal. Besides these animals, plenty of birds, bats, sloth, scorpions and snails are also found in these jungles.

A. Tropical Wet Evergreen Vegetation:

• Distribution: These forests are found on the western slope of the Western Ghats, upper Assam through Cachar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Climatic Conditions: They are found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over 250 cm and a short dry season. The mean annual temperature here is above 22°C.
• Characteristic Features:
  • Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified, with layers closer to the ground covered with shrubs and creepers, followed by short structured trees, further followed by tall variety of trees.
  • In these forests, trees reach great heights up to 60 m or above.
  • Bounded by semi-evergreen forests on drier margins.
  • Very rich biodiversity.
  • Timber produced in these forests is fine-grained and durable.

• Important Species found in these forests: Rosewood, Mahogony, Aini, Ebony, etc. Important species in Kerala are Mesa, White cedar, Jamun, Canes etc. Common species found in Assam forests are Gurjan, Jamun, Agar, Bamboo etc.

B. Tropical Semi-Evergreen Vegetation:

• Distribution: These forests occur in areas adjoining tropical wet evergreen, and form a transition between evergreen and moist deciduous forests. These forests occur on the western coast, in Assam, on the lower slopes of the eastern Himalayas and in the Andamans in the areas where precipitation and atmospheric humidity is slightly less than that in tropical evergreen vegetation area.
• Characteristic Features:
  • Such forests have a mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers provide an evergreen character to these forests.
  • The climbers are heavy, bamboos are less prevalent and epiphytes are abundant. [Epiphytes – The plants which depend on other plants for mechanical support (and not for nutrients). e.g. lichens, mosses, orchids etc.]
  • The forest is dominated by a variety of large trees with a tendency to gregariousness (i.e. growing in groups that are close together)
  • Plant Adaptations in these areas:
    • Buttresses – Many large trees have huge ridges called buttresses near the base that can rise 30 feet high before blending into the trunk. Buttress roots provide extra stability and increase the surface area of a tree so that it can ‘breathe in’ more carbon dioxide and ‘breathe out’ more oxygen. Typically, they are found in nutrient-poor rainforest soils and do not penetrate to deeper layers.
      

      

      Source. A buttress root system provides structural support.

      

      Big trees with buttress roots in tropical evergreen forest, India, Andaman Islands, Havelock Island. Source.

    • The bark is thicker and rougher, and the canopy is less dense than that in the previous type. Also, the canopies are not continuous and species richness is lower

• Main species are white cedar, hollock and kail. Important Species in Kerala are Aini, Laurel, Rosewood, thorny bamboo, etc. Important species of northeastern India are White Cedar, Indian Chestnut, Champa and Mango.

C. Tropical Dry Evergreen Vegetation:

• Distribution: This type is confined to the Tamil Nadu coast and the areas which receive rainfall of about 100cm mostly from the north-east monsoon/winter monsoon (October-December).
• The growth of evergreen forests in areas of such low rainfall arouses great botanical interest. This vegetation may be due to the seasonal distribution of rainfall (winter rainfall).
• Characteristic Features of this vegetation:
  • Short height trees (<12m)
  • A closed but low canopy of grasses and shrubs.
  • No canopy layer differentiation.
  • Bamboos are rare /absent.

• Important Species found in these forests: Neem, Jamun, Tamarind, Machkund, Khirni, Kokko, Ritha, Gamari Canes.
• Most of the land under these forests has been cleared for agriculture or casuarinas plantations (Eucalyptus tree plantations)

2. Tropical Deciduous Vegetation

Also called the monsoon forests, these are the most widespread forests in India. The term ‘Deciduous’ refers to the ability of some plants to lose their leaves annually. They are spread over regions which receive rainfall between 70 and 200 cm.

In these forests, the common animals found are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant. A huge variety of birds, lizards, snakes, and tortoises are also found here. [Currently, India is the only country on Earth confirmed to have both lions and tigers in its wilderness.]

On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into:

A. Tropical Moist Deciduous Vegetation

1. • Climatic Conditions: It thrives in areas having of moderate rainfall of 150-200 cm with a dry season of 4 to 6 months, a mean annual temperature of 26°C to 27°C and an average relative humidity of 60-80%. On the wetter margins, it has a transition to the tropical Semi-Evergreen Vegetation, while on the drier margins to the Tropical Dry Deciduous.
   • Distribution: It is found on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, eastern coastal plains, eastern plateaus, Himalayan foothills and in some parts of the Satluj-Ganga plains.
   • Characteristic Features:
     1. The trees shed their leaves during the dry season.
     2. These forests are usually 2 to 3 layered.
     3. Dense undergrowth

• Important Species: The common trees are Sal, Teak, Sandalwood, Ajun, Ebony, Shisham, Hurra, Mahua, Amla, Semul, Mulberry and Kusum.

B. Tropical Dry Deciduous Vegetation

• Climatic Conditions: The dry deciduous trees grow in areas where rainfall is less than 150cm and the dry period is relatively long. On the wetter margins, it has a transition to the moist deciduous, while on the drier margins to thorn forests.
• Distribution: It is found in Eastern Rajasthan, Kathiawar, rain-shadow areas of the Deccan plateau, central India and Punjab.
• Characteristic Features:
  • These forests consist of trees less than 25m high, with a light canopy consisting of deciduous trees. The undergrowth is shrubby and grassy.
  • As the hot dry season begins (March-May), the trees shed their leaves completely and the forest appears like a vast grassland with naked trees all around.
  • In the higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular plateau and the northern Indian plain, these forests have a parkland landscape i.e. trees are more stunted and widely spaced and are interspersed with patches of grass.
  • In the western and southern part of Rajasthan, vegetation cover is very scanty due to low rainfall and overgrazing.

• Important Species: Common plants are Teak, Sal, Laurel, Palas, Khair, Tendu, Amaltas, Bel, Axlewood etc.

3. Tropical Thorny Vegetation

• Climatic Conditions: In areas with 50-70cm of rainfall
• Distribution: It is found in south-western Punjab, western Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, central and eastern Rajasthan, western Madhya Pradesh, Kachchhand, neighbouring parts of Saurashtra, leeward areas of Sahyadris.
• Characteristic Features:
  • Plant life is highly specialized to adapt to the coarse and dry conditions in this area, with long roots, small leaves, stems that store water, and prickly spines that discourage animals from touching or eating them.
  • The natural vegetation consists of open stunted (trees with 6-9m height) forest breaking down into xerophytic bush and western Rajasthan grading into deserts.
  • In these forests, plants remain leafless for the most part of the year and give an expression of scrub vegetation.
  • Plant adaptations:
    • These xerophytic plants combat drought with certain devices of water preservation like partial or complete replacement of leaves by thorns, waxy leaves, water storing cells, hair on the stalk etc.
    • Tussocky grass grows up to a height of 2 m as the undergrowth.
    • Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil in order to get moisture.
    • The stems are succulent to conserve water.
    • Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize evaporation.
      

      

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• Important Species: Common species are Babul, Acacia, Kokko, Khair, Khajuri, Ber, Neem, Khejri, Palas, etc.
• In these forests, the common animals are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass, horses and camels.

Flora, Vegetation and Forests:

Flora refers to plants of a particular region or period, listed as a species and considered as a group. Likewise, fauna refers to the animal life, considered collectively, of any given period, environment or region.

Vegetation, on the other hand, refers to the assemblage of plant species in a given environmental frame or ecological frame. It is broader than the term flora which refers to species composition. Further:

• Natural vegetation includes that part of the plant life which grows in wild without human aid and adapts to constraints of the natural environment in size, structure and requirements. Thus cultivated crops and fruit orchards form a part of the vegetation but not natural vegetation.
• That part of natural vegetation which has remained undisturbed by humans is referred to as virgin vegetation. It can be found in India in the inaccessible parts of the Himalayas, the Thar Desert and the Sunderbans. Elsewhere, human occupation has either transformed natural vegetation into cultivated vegetation or degraded the natural vegetation.
  • The virgin vegetation, which is purely Indian is known as endemic or indigenous species but that which has come from outside India is termed as exotic.

Forest: The term forest implies ‘natural vegetation’ of the area, existing from thousands of years and supporting a variety of biodiversity, forming a complex ecosystem.

Depending on the physical, geographical, climatic and ecological factors, there are different types of forests like evergreen forest (mainly composed of evergreen tree species i.e. species having leaves all throughout the year) and deciduous forest (mainly composed of deciduous tree species i.e. species which lose their leaves during particular months of the year). Each forest type forms a habitat for a specific community of animals that are adapted to live in it.

Various factors which influence the type and distribution of natural vegetation and wildlife:

• Land

The nature of land affects the natural vegetation directly and indirectly. E.g. the type of vegetation in the mountainous regions is different than that in the plateau and plain areas. The fertile land is generally devoted to agriculture, while the undulating and rough terrains are areas where grassland and woodlands develop and give shelter to a variety of wildlife.

• Soil

Different types of soils provide basis for different types of vegetation. The sandy soils of the desert support cactus and thorny bushes while wet, marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and deltaic vegetation. The hill slopes with some depth of soil have conical trees.

• Temperature and Humidity

Temperature and humidity are the main factors which determine the character and extent of vegetation. E.g. an area with high temperature and high humidity supports evergreen forest, while an area with high temperature and low humidity supports thorny bushes (desert).

• Precipitation

Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation as compared to other areas of less rainfall.

See the following diagram to understand the combined effect of temperature and annual precipitation on the vegetation type of an area:

• Photoperiod (Sunlight)

Photoperiod, also called the light duration or day length, refers to the length of the light period as compared to the darkness within a day. The variation in photoperiod at different places is due to the differences in latitude, altitude, season and duration of the day. Due to longer duration of sunlight, trees grow faster in summer.

• Altitude

Increasing elevation causes a distribution of vegetation similar to that of increasing latitude. In general, ‘altitude mimics latitude’ and there occurs a close parallel between latitudinal and altitudinal zonation of climate and thus natural vegetation too. E.g. Mount Kenya in east Africa and Mount Chimborozo in Equador have their feet on the equator but their peaks are snow covered.

It was Alexander Von Humboldt who first recognised the relationship between vegetation and altitude.

Source

The Forest Types of India:

Since India is a land of various climatic regions, varied kinds of natural vegetation have developed here. Having said that, rainfall is more important than temperature (except in the Himalayas) in determining the vegetation distribution in India. The seasonal rainfall distribution/the length of the dry season also affect the vegetation distribution in an important way.

In general, the following inter-relationship is observed in India:

Observe this broad relationship as highlighted in the following map:

High rainfall areas (>200cm) —> Evergreen forests grow in the high rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, North –eastern India and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These forests grow in areas where the monsoon period lasts for several months. There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition. As such these forests appear green all the year round, hence the name evergreen.

Moderate Rainfall Areas (70-200cm) —>Deciduous forests are found in regions with a moderate amount of seasonal rainfall that lasts for only a few months. Most of the forests in which Teak trees grow are of this type. The deciduous trees shed their leaves during the winter and hot summer months.

Low Rainfall areas/ Semi-arid areas (<70cm) —> Thorn forests are found in the semi-arid regions of India. The trees, which are sparsely distributed, are surrounded by open grassy areas.

Apart from these, mangroves forests grow along the coast, especially in the river deltas. These plants are uniquely adapted to be able to grow in a mix of saline and freshwater (will be taken up in detail in the following sections.)