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Distribution: yearly

  • How Diplomatic Passports, visa regimes work?

    Why in the news? 

    After allegations of sexual abuse by Janata Dal (Secular) MP Prajwal Revanna came to light, the politician fled to Germany on a Diplomatic Passport.

    What is a Diplomatic Passport? 

    • The normal passports, which have dark blue covers and are valid for 10 years (for adults) while the diplomatic passports have maroon covers, and are valid for five years or less.
    • Holders of such passports are entitled to certain privileges and immunities as per international law, including immunity from arrest, detention, and certain legal proceedings in the host country.

    Who can get a Diplomatic Passport?

    • Diplomatic Status: Individuals with diplomatic status, such as diplomats representing the country abroad, are eligible for diplomatic passports.
    • Government-Appointed Officials: Government-appointed individuals travelling abroad for official business can receive diplomatic passports.
    • Officers of Indian Foreign Service (IFS): Officers working under branches A and B of the Indian Foreign Service (IFS), typically at the rank of Joint Secretary and above, are entitled to diplomatic passports.
    • Relatives of IFS and MEA Officers: Relatives and immediate family members of officers employed in the Indian Foreign Service (IFS) and Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) are eligible for diplomatic passports.
    • Authorized Individuals for Official Travel: Select individuals authorized to undertake official travel on behalf of the government, such as union ministers and Members of Parliament (MPs), may receive diplomatic passports. The validity of these passports is concurrent with the term of the MP.

    Surrender of Diplomatic Passport by MPs: 

    • Individuals who are disqualified from their positions, such as MPs, are required to surrender their diplomatic passports. For example, Congress leader Rahul Gandhi surrendered his diplomatic passport after being disqualified as an MP.

    Why did Prajwal Revanna not need a visa to travel to Germany?

    • Operational Visa Exemption Agreements: India has operational visa exemption agreements with certain countries, including Germany, for holders of diplomatic passports. These agreements allow diplomatic passport holders to travel to these countries without requiring a visa, provided their stay does not exceed 90 days.
    • Reciprocal Deal with Germany: A reciprocal deal signed in 2011 between India and Germany exempts holders of Indian diplomatic passports from obtaining a visa for travel to Germany.
      •  India has similar agreements with other countries, such as France, Austria, Afghanistan, Czech Republic, Italy, Greece, Iran, and Switzerland, where diplomatic passport holders are exempted from visa requirements.
    • Operational Visa Exemption for Other Passport Holders: India also has agreements with 99 other countries where not only diplomatic passport holders but also those holding service and official passports can avail of operational visa exemption for stays up to 90 days.
      • Countries in this list include Bahrain, Brazil, Egypt, Hong Kong, Oman, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates.
    • Despite not needing a visa, Prajwal Revanna should have applied for prior political clearance for his private visit to Germany. Members using a diplomatic passport are required to apply for political clearance directly to the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) before proceeding abroad.

    Who can revoke a Diplomatic Passport?

    • Court Order Requirement: The government can revoke a diplomatic passport only after a court order to that effect. The relevant provisions of the Passport Act 1967 stipulate that revocation of a diplomatic passport may occur upon orders from a court during proceedings concerning an offence allegedly carried out by the passport holder before a criminal court.
    • Passport Authority’s Discretion: The Passport Act empowers the passport authority to impound or revoke a passport under various circumstances. These include instances where the holder is in wrongful possession of the passport or obtained it by suppressing material information or in the interests of India’s sovereignty and integrity or friendly relations with foreign countries.
    • Conviction by Indian Court: A diplomatic passport can be revoked if the holder has been convicted by a court in India and sentenced to imprisonment for not less than two years.

    What is the Henley Passport Index?

    • The Henley Passport Index is a renowned ranking system that assesses the strength of passports based on the number of destinations their holders can access without a prior visa.
    • It utilizes data from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) and is enhanced by Henley & Partners’ research team.
    • In the latest 2024 ranking, India’s rank has slipped one place to 85th, despite the number of visa-free destinations increasing to 62 countries

    Way forward

    • Enhanced Oversight and Accountability: Implement stricter oversight mechanisms to monitor the issuance and use of diplomatic passports. Regular audits and reviews can help identify any discrepancies or misuse.
    • Strict Enforcement of Surrender Rules: Enforce existing rules mandating the surrender of diplomatic passports by individuals who are disqualified from their positions, such as Members of Parliament.

     

    Mains PYQ 

    Q Analyse the circumstances that led to the Tashkent Agreement in 1966. Discuss the highlights of the agreement.

  • Financial Relief in Domestic Violence Cases

    Why in the news?

    • A recent question before the Supreme Court compelled it to deliberate on whether damages for domestic violence should be determined based on the injuries sustained by the victim or the perpetrator’s ability to pay.
    • The petitioner contested orders from the Bombay High Court and a trial court directing him to pay Rs 3 crore to his wife under Section 22 of the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005.

    Domestic Violence Law: An Overview

    • The DV Act, 2005 aims to safeguard women’s rights by addressing violence within the family.
    • Key Features of the DV Act:
    Details
    Background Introduced in 2005 to address limitations in civil and criminal courts regarding domestic violence (under Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code).
    Definitions of Violence
    • Includes physical, sexual, emotional, verbal, psychological, and economic abuse (Section 3).
    • Even a single act of harm or injury qualifies as domestic violence.
    Beneficiaries
    • Any woman in a domestic relationship (Section 2).
    • Children can also file complaints, and any person can file on their behalf (Section 2).
    Respondents
    • Adult male members in domestic relationships (Section 2).
    • Relatives of the husband or male partner can also be respondents (Section 2).
    Rights to Residence Women cannot be denied access to resources during legal proceedings (Section 17).
    Other Rights
    • Access to police, shelter, medical aid, and legal assistance.
    • Can obtain various court orders, including protection, residence, and compensation orders (Section 18).
    Remedial Measures
    • Victims entitled to medical facilities, counseling, and shelter (Section 12).
      • Both parties may receive counseling as directed by the court (Section 14).
    • Respondents required to provide compensation for losses incurred by the victim (Section 20).
    • Courts to order respondents to pay damages for injuries, including mental and emotional trauma, resulting from domestic violence (Section 22).
    Protection Officers Appointment of officers in each district, preferably women, with necessary qualifications (Section 8).
    Fixed Timeline All complaints must be heard and disposed of within 60 days (Section 12).

     

    PYQ:

    [2022] Explore and evaluate the impact of ‘Work From Home’ on family relationships.

  • Mapping: Garo Hills

    Why in the news?

    • Geological Survey of India (GSI) explorers have made a breakthrough, uncovering ancient fossils in Tolegre, South Garo Hills of Meghalaya.
    • It is speculated that the fossils could be linked to the genera Rhodocetus or Amulocetus (now extinct), considered ancestors of modern whales.

    About Garo Hills

    • The Garo Hills, located in Meghalaya, are part of the Garo-Khasi range, one of the hill ranges in the northeastern region of India.
    • They are situated in the western part of Meghalaya, bordering Bangladesh to the south and west.
    • The terrain of the Garo Hills is rugged and hilly, characterized by dense forests, steep slopes, and deep valleys.
    • The Nokrek is highest Peak, which stands at approximately 1,415 meters (4,642 feet) above sea level.
    • The climate in the Garo Hills is typically humid subtropical, with heavy rainfall during the monsoon season, which usually lasts from June to September.
    • Numerous rivers and streams, including the Brahmaputra, Someshwari, and Jinjiram rivers crisscross this region.
    • The region is also known for its picturesque waterfalls, such as the Pelga Falls, located near Tura, the largest town in the Garo Hills.
    • The Nokrek National Park, located within, is recognized as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and is home to various endangered species, including the Asian elephant and the red panda.
    • The Garo Hills are inhabited predominantly by the Garo tribe, one of the major ethnic groups in Meghalaya.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Consider the following pairs:

    1. Nokrek Bio-Sphere Reserve : Garo Hills

    2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake : Barail Range

    3. Namdapha National Park: Daphla Hills

    Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1, 2 and 3

    (d) None

  • National Council for Agriculture and Rural Transformation (NCART): A New Vision for Agriculture Sector

    Why in the news?

    The Centre is contemplating the establishment of the National Council for Agriculture and Rural Transformation (NCART), envisioned as a federal body to formulate policies and programs for the agricultural sector.

    What is NCART?

    • The NCART is a proposed federal body aimed at coordinating and driving actions in the agriculture sector in India.
    • It would have representation of both the Centre and States.
    • The idea for NCART has been proposed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare as part of its 100-day action plan for the new government.
    • It draws inspiration from the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council.

    Terms of Reference of NCART:

    • Policy Formulation: NCART is envisioned as an overarching federal body responsible for devising policies and programs to promote agricultural and rural development.
    • Coordination: One of the key objectives of NCART is to ensure coordinated actions across various stakeholders involved in the agriculture sector, including the central government, state governments, and other relevant entities.
    • Consultative Body: NCART is expected to include representation from both the central and state governments, similar to the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council, to ensure a consultative approach in decision-making.
    • Legal Status: While the GST Council is a constitutional body, the exact status of NCART is yet to be finalized.

    India’s Agriculture Expenses:

    • Despite agriculture being a state subject, the Centre has significantly increased budgetary allocations for the Agriculture Ministry.
    • Budgetary allocation for the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare surged from Rs. 27,662.67 crore in 2013-14 to Rs. 1,25,035.79 crore in 2023-24 BE.

  • Mapping: Hopen Island in the Svalbard Archipelago

    Why in the news?

    Researchers disclosed that one of Norway’s Hopen Island in the Svalbard Archipelago witnessed its first walrus death due to Bird Flu (H5N1).

    About Hopen Island in the Svalbard Archipelago

    • Hopen Island is situated in the southern part of the Svalbard Archipelago, between the Barents Sea and the Greenland Sea.
    • The island covers an area of about 47 square km, making it one of the smaller islands in the Svalbard group.
    • The landscape mainly consists of low-lying tundra, rocky outcrops, and coastal cliffs.
    • Like the rest of Svalbard, Hopen Island experiences a harsh Arctic climate. Winters are long, dark, and extremely cold, while summers are short and cool.
    • It serves as an important breeding ground for seabirds such as guillemots, puffins, and kittiwakes. Polar bears are also occasionally spotted on the island, along with walruses, seals, and Arctic foxes.
    • It is uninhabited and largely inaccessible to humans due to its remote location and extreme weather conditions.
    • Historically, Hopen Island has been of strategic importance due to its location between the Barents Sea and the Greenland Sea.

    H5N1 Bird Flu: Details

    • H5N1 originated from a virus outbreak on a goose farm in China in 1996 and has since evolved into a highly pathogenic strain.
    • The virus quickly spread from Europe to Africa, Asia, North America, and South America, and most recently, it reached mainland Antarctica.
    • H5N1 is a subtype of the influenza A virus that causes severe respiratory disease in birds, known as avian influenza or “bird flu”.
    • Influenza A viruses are classified by subtypes based on the properties of their surface proteins, with H5N1 being one subtype.

    How widespread is it?

    • The virus has affected birds in over 80 countries, resulting in mass culling of poultry and wild birds.
    • Furthermore, it has now begun infecting mammals, including seals, sea lions, and marine mammals.
    • While humans rarely contract bird flu, those at risk are typically individuals who have extensive contact with infected birds at poultry farms.
    • Bird flu first broke out in Maharashtra in 2006.
    • The H5N1 virus led to the culling of millions of poultry so as to contain the virus. But it has resurfaced from time to time.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] Which one of the following pairs of islands is separated from each other by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’?

    (a) Andaman and Nicobar

    (b) Nicobar and Sumatra

    (c) Maldives and Lakshadweep

    (d) Sumatra and Java
  • [3 May 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: The Judiciary’s Shadow over Standard-Essential Patents

    [3 May 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: The Judiciary’s Shadow over Standard-Essential Patents

    Mains PYQ Relevance: 

    Q) To achieve the desired objectives, it is necessary to ensure that the regulatory institutions remain independent and autonomous. Discuss in the light of experiences in the recent past. (UPSC IAS/2015)

    Q) The product diversification of financial institutions and insurance companies, resulting in the overlapping of products and services strengthens the case for the merger of the two regulatory agencies, namely SEBI and IRDA. Justify. (UPSC IAS/2013)

    Note4Students: 

    Prelims: Standard Essential Patents (SEP);

    Mains: The effect of judicial lethargy and activism on Standard essential patents (SEP);

    Mentor comments: There is a possible crisis brewing in India over how certain technology companies are wielding ‘standard essential patents’ (SEP) against the telecom manufacturing sector in India. This is a complex policy issue that has direct ramifications for India’s effort to build a domestic manufacturing industry for cellular phones. So far, the issues of regulating SEPs have been left to the judiciary, which, as an institution, has mostly missed the ball.

    Let’s learn

    —

    Why in the News?

    The government must put in place measures to regulate Standard Essential Patents before the judiciary causes further damage to India’s manufacturing dreams.

    What are ‘Standard Essential Patents’ (SEP)? 

    • These are the types of patents that cover technologies that are adopted by the industry as “standards”. For example, technologies such as CDMA, GSM, and LTE are all industry standards in the telecom sector. 
    • Technological standards are especially important to ensure the interoperability of different brands of cellular phones manufactured by different companies.
      • For example, once GSM was adopted as a standard, all manufacturers had to ensure that the handsets that they manufactured were compatible with GSM.

    The Opaque Model:

    • Countries with little innovation in the telecom sector, such as India, have minimal influence over the setting of standards or the licensing of Standard Essential Patents (SEPs). This lack of influence contributes to the opacity of the process.
    • Standard-setting organizations (SSOs) are primarily run by private technology companies, leading to a concentration of power and decision-making among these entities.
    • Owners of SEPs can demand extortionary royalties or licensing terms from manufacturers due to the lack of alternatives. This practice can block competition and hinder market entry for smaller players.
    • The lack of alternatives and the necessity for manufacturers to license SEPs create a “patent holdup” problem, where owners of SEPs can exploit their position to extract higher licensing fees.
    • Despite the theoretical expectation that SSOs would prevent unfair practices, the self-regulation model has failed in practice. This failure is evidenced by the record fines imposed on some SEP owners for engaging in anti-competitive practices.

    The Effect of Judicial Lethargy and Activism

    • Lack of Investigation into Abusive Licensing Practices: Due to judicial lethargy and delays, the Indian government has yet not investigated potentially abusive licensing practices of technology companies owning Standard Essential Patents (SEPs).  
    • Protracted Litigation: Litigation surrounding competition law issues has been mired in delays and remained pending for an extended period, resulting in a lack of resolution. For instance, a case involving Ericsson challenging the Competition Commission of India’s power lasted for seven years before a judgment was delivered.
    • Impact on Manufacturers: The prolonged litigation and uncertainty have adversely affected manufacturers, particularly Indian companies, who have been required to deposit substantial sums of money with the court during the pendency of trials. This has strained their financial resources and affected their ability to operate effectively.
    • Unprecedented Interim Orders: The Delhi High Court has issued unprecedented “deposit” orders, requiring manufacturers to deposit large sums of money with the court before trial.
      • These orders lack legal basis and are unfair to defendants, depriving them of working capital for the duration of the trial.
    • Impact on Investment and Manufacturing Sector: Judicial lethargy and activism have negative implications for the government’s efforts to attract investment in the manufacturing sector.
      • Delays and uncertainties in legal proceedings deter potential investors and undermine the effectiveness of government initiatives like the “production-linked incentives” scheme.
    • Questioning on the Policies of Government: The situation raises questions about the rationale behind government policies that incentivize manufacturing while overlooking issues related to abusive licensing practices by SEP owners. This inconsistency may hinder efforts to promote economic growth and job creation in the country.

    Way Forward:

    • Need for Government Intervention: There is a pressing need for the Indian government to intervene and implement measures to regulate SEPs. The current judicial delays and uncertainties surrounding SEPs are hindering India’s manufacturing aspirations.
    • Ensuring Fairness and Equity: Regulatory measures would aim to ensure fairness and equity in the licensing of SEPs, preventing monopolistic practices and extortionate royalties that could hinder competition and innovation.

  • Why are Indian spices facing the heat? | Explained

    Why in the News?

    Many have announced an investigation into possible contamination of spice mixes sold by top Indian brands like MDH and Everest Masalas.

    • Delhi-based think tank Global Trade Research Initiative (GTRI) in a recent note held, “With nearly $700 million worth of exports to critical markets at stake.”

    What is Ethylene Oxide (ETO)?

    • Ethylene oxide is a flammable, colorless gas at temperature above 51.3 F (10.7 C). When used directly in the gaseous form or in non-explosive gaseous mixtures with nitrogen or carbon dioxide, ETO serves as a disinfectant, fumigant, sterilizing agent, and insecticide.
    • ETO has also been reported to be produced from natural sources. In certain plants, ethylene (a natural plant growth regulator) is degraded to ethylene oxide. ETO ia also generated from water – logged soil, manure and sewage sludge.

    What are the health concerns?

    • ETO Usage and Contamination: ETO is a prohibited pesticide that is used as a sterilizing agent in the food industry, including spices.
    • Toxicity and Carcinogenicity: Residues of ETO can lead to the formation of toxic and carcinogenic compounds, such as ethylene glycol. Long-term exposure to ethylene oxide is associated with various health risks, including cancers like lymphoma and leukemia.
    • Previous Incidents: Indian-made products, including cough syrups, have been linked to incidents where ethylene glycol contamination resulted in fatalities, particularly among children in countries like Cameroon, Gambia, Indonesia, and Uzbekistan.
    • Regulatory Response: The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has banned the use of ETO and has flagged contamination issues in Indian spices in the past. A recent EFSA report highlighted carcinogenic chemicals found in numerous products linked to India.

    Which countries have flagged safety of Indian spices?

    • Hong Kong: Suspended the sale of three MDH spice blends and Everest fish curry masala due to high levels of ethylene oxide (ETO).
    • Singapore: Ordered a recall of Everest spice mix, stating that ethylene oxide makes the spices unfit for human consumption and poses a cancer risk.
    • United States: The FDA is aware of the reports and is gathering additional information about the situation.
    • Maldives: The Maldives FDA has suspended the sale of spices produced by Everest and MDH.
    • Australia: Food Standards of Australia and New Zealand is working with international counterparts to understand the issue and determine if further action is required.
    • Bangladesh: Gathering information on companies importing possibly contaminated products and plans to carry out examinations if necessary.

    What are the operational challenges faced by the Indian government?

    • Lack of Standardized Protocol System: India’s diverse food landscape, the lack of standardised monitoring and intentional food fraud may prevent manufacturers from efficiently tracing ingredients and assessing potential risks.
    • Lack of Database: Many companies struggle to trace ingredients, especially raw agricultural commodities, due to the lack of standardised recordkeeping and intentional food fraud. This prevents manufacturers from assessing potential risks, compromising the safety of the entire food supply chain.
    • Traceability is particularly challenging for small and medium sized businesses with limited resources.

    What steps is Food and Drug Administration (FDA) taking to improve the safety of spices?

    • Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA): The FSMA rules address both domestically produced and imported foods.
      • For example, the preventive controls rule requires food facilities, including those that manufacture spices, to conduct a hazard analysis, identify hazards reasonably likely to occur, and establish preventive controls for such hazards.
    • Spices Board and its Measures: The Spices Board announced mandatory testing of consignments shipped to Singapore and Hong Kong, and gathering technical details and analytical reports from relevant food and drug agencies.
    • Issuance of Guidelines: A circular dated April 30 contains guidelines to exporters on preventing ETO contamination, developed after discussions with the Indian spice industry.
      • Measures include voluntary testing of ETO during raw and final stages, storing ETO treated products separately, and incorporating critical control points in hazard analysis.

    Way forward:

    • Enhanced Regulatory Oversight: Strengthen regulatory bodies such as the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) to ensure strict adherence to food safety standards and regulations. Implement regular inspections, audits, and enforcement actions to monitor compliance with safety guidelines.
    • Improved Traceability Systems: Develop and implement robust traceability systems across the food supply chain to track the origin and movement of ingredients and products. Utilize technology such as blockchain and RFID tagging to enhance transparency and accountability.

    Mains question for practice 

    Q Explain the health risks associated with ethylene oxide (ETO) contamination in spices.

    Mains PYQ

    Q Elaborate the policy taken by the Government of India to meet the challenges of the food processing sector. (UPSC IAS/2019)

  • A computer science conundrum that could transform healthcare

    Why in the News? 

    Indian Health Care system faces a new set of complex problems that seem to be harder to solve because of their inherent complexity and the constraints they threaten to impose on resources.

    Quick Problems versus Complex Problems in Health Care:

    • Healthcare is filled with complex problems. Consider scheduling in a hospital: assigning doctors and nurses to shifts, booking operating theatres for surgeries, and organizing patient appointments.
    • It is an intricate puzzle that requires considering various factors — staff availability, urgency of medical cases, etc. — and potential changes such as emergency cases and cancellations.
    • The Quick Problems vs Complex Problems in Health Care question is this: there can be a shortcut to solve ‘Complex Problems’ problems as quickly as ‘Quick Problems’ problems.
    • The implication is that if Quick Problems equals Complex Problems, we could quickly find the optimal solution to these scheduling problems, thus significantly improving patient care.

    Implications for the Healthcare System:

    • Impact on Antibiotic Resistance: Quick analysis of bacterial genomes and prediction of resistance patterns could lead to more effective antibiotic prescriptions, improving patient outcomes and combating antibiotic resistance.
    • Advancement in Cancer Treatment: Swift identification of the optimal treatment for individual cancer patients could save lives by effectively tackling the complexity of cancer mutations and treatment options.
    • Optimization of Insurance Decision-Making: Insurance companies grappling with ‘NP’ problems in determining premiums and packages could benefit from a shortcut provided by solving the P versus NP problem. This could lead to fairer and more accurate premiums and conditions for customers.
    • Better utilization of Government health sector funding: Efficiently solving complex problems could lead to better utilization of government spending on healthcare, minimizing leakage and contributing to achieving universal health coverage.
    • Resource Constraint Reduction and Improved Health Outcomes: By solving complex healthcare problems more efficiently, there is the potential to dramatically reduce resource constraints and improve health outcomes broadly.

    Way Forward: Governments can enact policies and regulations that promote the responsible use of technology in healthcare and incentivize the adoption of evidence-based practices. This includes establishing standards for data privacy and security, fostering transparency in algorithmic decision-making, and ensuring equitable access to healthcare services.

    Mains PYQ 

    Q Public health system has limitation in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (UPSC IAS/2015)

  • [PREMIUM] To the South Pole – Antarctica

    Why in the news?

    The Antarctic Treaty has sparked debates among policymakers, scientists, and the public, as they weigh the balance between environmental conservation, economic interests, and geopolitical concerns in Antarctica.

    About Antarctica

      • Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, covering an area of approximately 14 million square km.
      • It is situated entirely within the Antarctic Circle, with its geographic center near the South Pole.
      • It is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent on Earth.
      • The interior of Antarctica is a polar desert, receiving very little precipitation, mostly in the form of snow.
    • The Antarctic Ice Sheet is the largest single mass of ice on Earth, containing approximately 70% of the world’s freshwater.

    Geographical Features:

    Description
    Mountains
    • The continent is home to several mountain ranges, including the Transantarctic Mountains.
    • Vinson Massif is the highest peak at 4,892 meters (16,050 feet) above sea level.
    Ice Shelves Large floating ice shelves extend along the coast, formed by glaciers flowing from the interior, crucial for stabilizing the Antarctic ice sheet.
    Glaciers Numerous glaciers flow from the high interior to the coast, including Pine Island Glacier and Thwaites Glacier, among the largest and fastest-moving in the world.
    Icebergs
    • Glaciers calve off large chunks of ice, forming icebergs of various sizes.
    • Antarctic Iceberg A-68, which broke off from the Larsen C Ice Shelf in 2017, was one of the largest recorded.
    Plateaus Much of Antarctica’s interior consists of high, flat plateaus covered by ice, reaching elevations over 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) above sea level.
    Ice-Free Areas Despite being predominantly ice-covered, some ice-free areas exist along the coastlines and in the Antarctic Peninsula region, supporting limited vegetation and wildlife.

    Territorial Claims on Antarctica:

    The countries with territorial claims in Antarctica are:

    1. Argentina: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Argentine Antarctica.
    2. Australia: Claims the Australian Antarctic Territory.
    3. Chile: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Chilean Antarctic Territory.
    4. France: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Adélie Land.
    5. New Zealand: Claims the Ross Dependency.
    6. Norway: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as Queen Maud Land.
    7. United Kingdom: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as the British Antarctic Territory.
    8. United States: Claims a sector of Antarctica known as the Marie Byrd Land.

    India’s Antarctic Outreach

    • Initiated in 1981, India’s Antarctic Program, managed by National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, encompasses multi-disciplinary research expeditions.
    • With the establishment of research bases like Dakshin Gangotri (1983) (now decommissioned), Maitri (1989), and Bharati (2012), India contributes significantly to Antarctic exploration.
    • Notably, India’s presence in Antarctica includes a Post Office established in 1984, facilitating communication and research logistics.

     

    PYQ:

    [2011] The formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic region has been a cause of concern. What could be the reason for the formation of this hole?

    (a) Presence of prominent tropospheric turbulence; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons

    (b) Presence of prominent polar front and stratospheric’: Clouds; and inflow of chlorofluorocarbons

    (c) Absence of polar front and stratospheric clouds; and inflow of methane and chlorofluorocarbons

    (d) Increased temperature at polar region due to global warming.

  • Hindu Marriage not valid without requisite Ceremonies: SC

    Why in the news?

    • The Supreme Court recently emphasized the sacredness of Hindu marriage, stating it is not merely a social event but a ‘samskara’ and a sacrament of significant value in Indian society.
    • The court’s observations came in response to a case involving two commercial pilots seeking a divorce decree without a valid Hindu marriage ceremony.

    About Hindu Marriage Act, 1955

    Details
    Enactment Passed by the Parliament of India on May 18, 1955.
    Purpose Amendment and codification of laws related to marriage among Hindus and others.
    Applicability
    • Applies to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs, and others NOT governed by Muslim, Christian, Parsi, or Jewish laws.
    • NOTE: The Special Marriage Act, 1954 applies to all citizens of India, irrespective of religion, faith, or belief.  It facilitates inter-religious and inter-caste marriages.
    Conditions for Marriage Section 5 specifies conditions including age, mental capacity, consent, and absence of prohibited relationships.

    Features of the HMA
    Guardianship for Marriage Section 6 outlines the persons entitled to give consent for a bride’s marriage.
    Solemnization of Marriage Section 7 recognizes customary rites and ceremonies for Hindu marriage.
    Registration of Marriage Section 8 allows for the registration of Hindu marriages for facilitating proof.
    Ceremonies for a Hindu Marriage
    • Explains the special varieties of ceremonies that may be done to solemnize a Hindu marriage. Ex. ‘Saptapadi’
    • It acknowledges each conventional and court-registered marriage.
    Restitution of Conjugal Rights Section 9 permits application for restitution of conjugal rights if one spouse withdraws without excuse.
    Judicial Separation Section 10 provides for judicial separation based on certain grounds.
    Nullity of Marriage and Divorce Grounds for voidable marriages and divorce specified in Sections 11-13.
    Mutual Divorce Section 13B allows mutual divorce by consent of both parties.
    Alimony and Maintenance Sections 24-25 enable spouses to seek maintenance and alimony post-divorce.
    Marriage Laws (Amendment) Bill, 2010 Proposed amendments for easier divorce on grounds of irretrievable breakdown.
    Judicial Review Supreme Court rulings on divorce petitions and exercise of powers under Article 142.

    Essence of Hindu Marriage: Supreme Courts’ Observations

    • Denouncement of Unrecognized Marriages:
        • The Supreme Court denounced the practice of seeking marital status without a valid ceremony.
        • Emphasized that marriage is a lifelong commitment and not to be treated lightly.
    • Sacred Character of Hindu Marriage:
        • Hindu marriage is termed as a ‘sacrament’ with a sacred character.
        • It symbolizes the unity of two individuals into a dignified, equal, and consensual union.
    • Institutional Importance:
        • Viewed as a vital institution for procreation, family consolidation, and fostering fraternity within communities.
    • Adherence to Rites and Ceremonies:
        • The court reiterated that a Hindu marriage must adhere to the rites and ceremonies prescribed under the Hindu Marriage Act.
        • For instance, the ‘saptapadi’ ceremony is essential for validity.
    • Role of Marriage Registration:
      • Marriage registration aids in providing evidence of the wedding.
      • However, it does not confer legitimacy if the marriage is not solemnized according to the Hindu Marriage Act.

    PYQ:

    [2020] Customs and traditions suppress reason leading to obscurantism. Do you agree?

    [2015] Discuss the possible factors that inhibit India from enacting for its citizen a uniform civil code as provided for in the Directive Principles of State Policy.