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Exam Year: 2018

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    The Justice B.N. Srikrishna Committee’s 2018 report – “A Free and Fair Digital Economy” – was India’s foundational attempt to translate the privacy jurisprudence of Puttaswamy (2017) into statutory architecture.

    The Rising Scale of Cybercrime in India

    Cybercrime cases rose from 10.29 lakh in 2022 to 28.15 lakh in 2025 (MHA, I4C).

    Indians lost approximately

    Cybercrime complaints have grown by over 623% between 2021 and 2024 on the NCRP portal.

    77% of fraud losses stem from investment scams; digital arrests (9%) and sextortion (4%) are the fastest-growing categories (I4C, 2025).

    I4C has frozen 24.67 lakh mule accounts and blocked 9.42 lakh SIM cards linked to cyber fraud

    Key Recommendations of the Srikrishna Committee Report

    Citizen reframed as data principal; entity as data fiduciary with trust obligations.

    Enshrined principles of consent, purpose limitation, data minimisation, and storage limitation.

    Heightened protection for sensitive personal data – health, biometric, financial, religious, genetic

    Created an independent Data Protection Authority (DPA) with adjudicatory powers.

    Mandated data localisation for critical and sensitive personal data within India.

    Recognised new-age rights – confirmation, correction, portability, right to be forgotten.

    Special safeguards for children’s data, including parental consent and a ban on profiling.

    Cross-border transfer permitted only via adequacy mechanisms or contractual safeguards.

    Strengths of the Report

    Constitutional anchoring in Puttaswamy – privacy treated as a fundamental right, not a regulatory courtesy.

    Fiduciary framing imposes a trust-based duty on data handlers, drawing from common law traditions.

    GDPR-aligned principles of purpose limitation and accountability bring India to global standards.

    Independent regulator (DPA) institutionalises enforcement beyond executive discretion.

    Empowerment of citizens through actionable rights – correction, portability, erasure.

    Sectoral sensitivity through layered protection for health, financial, biometric, and children’s data.

    Digital sovereignty advanced through data localisation provisions for critical data.

    Balanced approach – does not stifle innovation; permits research, journalism, and reasonable business processing.

    Weaknesses of the Report

    Broad State exemptions – surveillance under Section 35 permits processing in the interest of national security, public order, etc., without prior judicial oversight.

    Weak independence of the DPA – appointment process dominated by the executive raises capture concerns.

    Ambiguity on “critical” personal data – left to executive notification, creating regulatory uncertainty.

    Data localisation costs disproportionately affect MSMEs, startups, and global service providers.

    No clear remedy framework for data breaches – compensation provisions remain vague and non-deterrent.

    Inadequate provisions on non-personal data – a critical gap addressed only later by the Kris Gopalakrishnan Committee.

    No special framework for emerging threats – AI profiling, deepfakes, biometric coercion are underaddressed.

    Limited attention to journalistic and whistleblower data, raising press-freedom concerns.

    Way Forward

    Operationalise the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, with timely framing of subordinate rules.

    Establish the Data Protection Board of India (DPBI) as a genuinely independent authority, on the lines of TRAI or SEBI.

    Bring State surveillance under judicial pre-authorisation, in line with the Puttaswamy proportionality test.

    Strengthen CERT-In, I4C, and NCIIPC capacities with sustained funding and inter-agency coordination.

    Mandate algorithmic transparency and AI-impact assessments for high-risk processing.

    Operationalise the Cyber Fraud Mitigation Centre (CFMC) to scale real-time fraud interception.

    Launch a national digital literacy mission focusing on Tier-2/3 cities, senior citizens, and first-time users.

    Promote international cooperation through Budapest Convention engagement and bilateral data-sharing protocols.

    “Data is the new oil.” Thus, protection of personal data is no longer a technological concern but a constitutional one.

    2019 – What is CyberDome Project? Explain how it can be useful in controlling internet crimes in India.

    (10)

    The CyberDome Project is a high-tech PPP initiative of Kerala Police, established as a “Centre of Excellence” to combat emerging cyber threats through collaborative research and development.

    Rising Internet Crimes in India

    Cybersecurity incidents rose from 10.29 lakh in 2022 to 22.68 lakh in 2024 (120% increase in two years)

    Massive Financial Toll- over as per NCRP.

    Significant rise in AI-driven phishing and “Digital Arrest” scams

    Enforcement agencies have blocked over 9.42 lakh SIM cards and 2.63 lakh IMEIs linked to fraudulent activities by early 2025.

    Over 86% of households are now connected to the internet – High vulnerability

    13.7% of global incidents target India (Cyfirma report)

    Importance of CyberDome in Controlling Internet Crimes

    Shift from “reactive investigation” approach to “proactive defense” model

    Public-Private Collaboration bridges the talent gap by involving over 2,500 volunteers, including ethical hackers and IT experts

    Real-Time Threat Intelligence using AI and machine learning. In 2024, it successfully thwarted a major DDoS attack on an Indian financial institution.

    Combatting Online Exploitation through initiatives like “Hac’KP 2025” and the “KID GLOVE” program (international recognition from INTERPOL)

    In September 2024, it launched a Security Operation Centre (SOC) to monitor police networks and prevent sensitive data breaches.

    Specialized Cyber-Wings- It operates niche units like the “Ransomware School” and a Malware Analysis Lab, creating Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs).

    Academic Synergy- Collaborations with institutions like NIT Calicut (2024 MoU)

    Financial Fraud Mitigation detected vulnerabilities in 4 out of 10 banking apps tested (CAG report)

    Officers and volunteers act as “Online Police Patrols,” monitoring social media for extremist propaganda, radicalization efforts, and the spread of fake news.

    The CyberDome Project has transformed the Kerala Police into a tech-forward force, achieving a 25% increase in case resolution between 2022 and 2024.

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    India is one of the top 10 mega diverse countries of the world (8.1% of the world’s species). A rational policy for dam construction must adopt a dynamic risk-management framework.

    “Forests are the lungs of our land. A nation that destroys it destroys itself..” – Franklin D. Roosevelt

    Possible unforeseen contingencies

    Ecological degradation – Submergence of forests and biodiversity loss.

    Cultural erosion – Eg- loss of “Sacred Groves”

    Livelihood disruption – Loss of agriculture, fishing, forest-based economy.

    Downstream ecological impact – Eg- Altered river flow affecting agriculture and wetlands.

    Reservoir-induced seismicity – Eg- 1967 Koyna Earthquake.

    Waterlogging and salinisation causing soil degradation.

    Health risks – Stagnant water increasing vector-borne diseases. Eg- Malaria and dengue

    Social conflict – Tensions between locals, migrants, and authorities.

    Climate uncertainty – Eg- Irregular monsoon impacting reservoir levels.

    Rational Policy for Dealing with Unforeseen Contingencies – must be Adaptive, Transparent, and Restorative.

    Comprehensive impact assessments for Procedural Justice

    Integrated Environmental, Social and Cultural Impact Assessments.

    Adaptive management- mandatory periodic reassessments every 5 years.

    The “Precautionary Principle”- If a risk (like a GLOF) is scientifically plausible but uncertain, the policy must favor environmental safety over construction.

    Ensuring Free, Prior, and Informed Consent (FPIC) by Gram Sabhas under PESA Act 1996.

    The “Benefit-Sharing” Model- Making communities “partners in prosperity.”

    Just and participatory rehabilitation – Eg- Land for land

    Ecological Insurance Fund from electricity revenue for unforeseen disaster relief.

    Tribal Development Fund for Livelihood for Life

    Cultural Heritage Mapping before submergence.

    Ecological offsets – Compensatory afforestation and biodiversity corridors. (Inter-generational Equity principle)

    Grievance Redressal at the Doorstep through an independent Project Ombudsman.

    Risk governance – Eg- Flood warning systems downstream.

    Decommissioning Clause- a clear “End-of-Life” plan for the dam, ensuring the valley can eventually be restored.

    “Development without Justice is merely organized plunder.” By treating the mountain ecosystem with “Bio-centric Humility,” the state can mitigate the moral and physical risks of development.

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    The debate between the “Ends” and the “Means” is one of the oldest in moral philosophy, representing the tension between Consequentialism (Teleology) and Duty-based ethics (Deontology).

    Justification of Ends (Consequentialism)

    Maximizing Welfare- The primary goal is the “Common Good.”

    Strategic Necessity- Eg- For realist scholars of IR like Morgenthau, national interest takes precedence over means

    Efficiency in Governance- Eg- mandatory vaccination drives to address vaccine hesitancy

    Security and Intelligence- surveillance or “white lies” are necessary to prevent terrorism.

    Scientific Progress- Eg- Renaissance scientists stole bodies for dissection

    Economic Stabilization- Eg- Governments used taxpayer money to save “Too Big to Fail” banks during 2008 crisis

    Crisis Management- Eg- Emergency Triage – In war zones, doctors choose who to treat and who to let die based on survival probability

    Justification of Means (Deontology) – Immanuel Kant and Mahatma Gandhi

    Nishkama Karma (The Bhagavad Gita)- humans are only in control of their actions (means), not the results (ends).

    Moral Integrity- A “good” end achieved through “bad” means is a hollow victory that degrades the character of the actor.

    As Gandhi famously said, “The means may be likened to a seed, the end to a tree.”

    Protection of Individual Rights- Deontology ensures that individuals are never treated as mere “tools” for a larger goal.

    Preventing the “Slippery Slope”- Once you justify a small evil for a great good, it becomes easier to justify larger evils.

    Rule of Law- A smooth-functioning society depends on everyone following the rules, even when it’s inconvenient.

    Ensuring accountability – Eg- Whistleblowing by Edward Snowden – “end” (national security) did not justify the “means” (illegal mass surveillance and violation of privacy).

    Sustainable Peace- Forced peace (ends) through war (means) rarely lasts. Eg- “Truth and Reconciliation commission” in South Africa

    My View- I believe that the means are of paramount importance for the following reasons-

    Means are based on respect for Human Dignity

    Ends are Uncertain, Means are Absolute

    The Character of the System is defined by the culture and means used.

    Means build institutional trust

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    The above statement highlights the “teleological” approach to truth. It suggests that the moral value of an action is determined not just by the act itself, but by the ultimate outcome it produces for society.

    Justification of Falsehood

    Utilitarian ethics – Maximising overall welfare. Eg- During COVID-19, some governments delayed announcing lockdowns to prevent mass panic.

    Principle of non-maleficence – Preventing harm. Eg- Doctors not disclosing terminal diagnoses to prevent severe psychological shock.

    Doctrine of double effect – Harm avoided outweighs moral cost. Eg- Undercover police deceive suspects to dismantle trafficking networks.

    To maintain social harmony. Eg- administration declaring minor scuffle between two communities as a “personal dispute” to prevent a city-wide riot.

    Emergency ethics – in wartime, truth is so precious that she should always be attended by a bodyguard of lies. – Winston Churchill.

    Public interest principle – Eg- Withholding sensitive information during terror attacks to avoid aiding perpetrators.

    Virtue ethics – Compassion and prudence over rigid honesty.

    Protection of life – Right to life supersedes right to information. Eg- providing “New Identities” under witness protection

    Diplomatic De-escalation- During war, “back-channel” communications involve tactical denials to give face-saving exit to both countries.

    Counter-argument

    Erodes trust in governance.

    Slippery slope – “Noble lies” justify authoritarianism.

    “hiding failures.” Eg- falsifying COVID deaths

    Violates autonomy and right to truth.

    Accountability loss – Lies prevent public scrutiny.

    Long-term harm – Eg- initial denials of Chernobyl’s severity

    Moral corrosion – Ends justify means mentality spreads injustice.

    The Tirukkural does not provide a “license to lie” but rather a “test of virtue.” Lie is justified only when the good produced is “unblemished” (meaning it harms no one else) and “common” (benefiting all).

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    As per UNDRR, Disaster risk reduction is aimed at preventing new and reducing existing disaster risk and managing residual risk, all of which contribute to strengthening resilience and therefore to the achievement of sustainable development.

    Measures Taken in India Before Sendai Framework (Pre-2015)

    Disaster Management Act, 2005 established NDMA, SDMA, DDMAs – India’s first legal-institutional framework for DRR.

    Formation of NDRF (2006) – a specialised, trained, and equipped response force for multi-hazard operations. Played a major role in Uttarakhand floods (2013).

    National Policy on Disaster Management (2009) – Shifted policy from relief to prevention, preparedness, and mitigation.

    National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (2011) – World Bank assisted programme for mitigating risks of cyclones in 8 cyclone prone coastal States

    Early Warning Dissemination System (EWDS)

    Cyclone Risk Mitigation Infrastructure (CRMI)

    Technical Assistance for Capacity Building on Disaster Risk Management

    Project Management and Monitoring

    Measures Taken After Adoption of Sendai Framework (Post-2015)

    (Aligned with Sendai’s four priorities: risk knowledge, governance, investment, preparedness & BBB.)

    National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016 – India’s first national plan fully aligned with Sendai Framework, covering:

    Multi-hazard risk assessment,

    Prevention-mitigation strategies,

    Sector-wise responsibilities (health, housing, power, transport, education),

    Monitoring indicators aligned with Sendai’s seven global targets.

    Multi-Hazard Early Warning System (MHEWS) – integrates satellite, radar, and IoT data via the IMD’s Decision Support System (DSS). Improves accuracy by 20-40%. Apps used are

    MAUSAM: General weather forecasts.

    DAMINI: Lightning alerts.

    MEGHDOOT: Agromet advisories for farmers.

    Nature-Based Solutions – Mangrove restoration (MISHTI), wetland protection (Amrit Dharohar) to reduce cyclone/flood vulnerability.

    Shift in disaster-financing architecture – from earlier response-only funds to separate mitigation funds at national and state level as per recommendations of 15th FC

    Community-Based Disaster Management under Aapda Mitra/Aapda Sakhi.

    GIS-Based Hazard Mapping– Eg- National Landslide Susceptibility Mapping (NLSM 2023) covers all Himalayan states.

    Global Efforts – Launched coalition of disaster disaster resilient infrastructure

    National Landslide Risk Mitigation Programme (NLRMP) –

    Cyclone Preparedness (Odisha Model) – Mass evacuations, cyclone shelters, and resilient infrastructure. Eg- Only 64 deaths in Cyclone Fani (2019).

    City/state-specific Heat Action Plans (HAPs) for heatwave prediction + response + healthcare preparedness. Eg- Ahmedabad HAP cut mortality by 30-40% since 2013.

    Difference between Hyogo and Sendai Frameworks

    The Sendai Framework’s proactive approach is essential for making Bharat a ‘weather-ready and climate-smart’ nation.

    Disaster Specific

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    India lies between the Golden Crescent and Golden Triangle

    Narco-Terrorism as a Serious Threat in India

    Nexus between Terror Groups and Organised Crime to move drugs and launder money.

    Destabilisation of Border States– Eg- Rising drug addiction and arms recovery in Punjab.

    Use of Advanced Technology– Eg- Drone-based drug and arms drops across the Punjab border.

    Threat to Youth and Social Fabric – Eg- as per AIIMS report, 15.4% of Punjab’s population was engaged in some form of substance use (over 3 million people)

    .

    Maritime security concerns –

    Overburdens law enforcement and judicial systems.

    Creates parallel illicit economies, undermining governance.

    Linkages between Drug Trafficking and Other Illicit Activities

    Drug Trafficking-Gunrunning Nexus – Eg- Heroin smuggling via Punjab border linked with arms drops using drones from across the border.

    Drug Trafficking-Money Laundering Nexus – Drug proceeds are laundered through hawala networks, shell companies and benami assets.

    Drug Trafficking-Terrorism Nexus (Narco-terrorism)– Eg- Heroin trade from Afghanistan funding terrorism in Jammu & Kashmir.

    Drug Trafficking-Human Trafficking Nexus- Eg- Rohingya and migrant trafficking routes in Northeast India overlapping with narcotics corridors.

    Drug Trafficking-Organised Crime Nexus– Eg- Mafia networks in border states controlling drug distribution and extortion.

    Drug Trafficking-Counterfeit Currency Nexus – Fake currency used to settle drug deals and destabilise economy.

    Drug Trafficking-Cybercrime Nexus– Eg- Use of encrypted messaging apps and crypto wallets for narcotics trade.

    Measures to Counter Narco-Terrorism

    Strengthening Border Management – Enhance surveillance, fencing, anti-drone systems and coastal security.

    Integrated Intelligence – Seamless coordination among NIA, NCIB, ED, DRI, state police and intelligence agencies.

    Targeting Financial Networks – Crackdown on money laundering, hawala and benami assets linked to drug trade.

    International Cooperation – Cooperation under FATF framework and bilateral mechanisms.

    Legal and Institutional Strengthening – Swift prosecution under Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985

    Technological Solutions – Use of AI, data analytics and drone monitoring to track trafficking routes.

    Fast track implementation of National Action Plan for Drug Demand Reduction (NAPDDR) and Nasha Mukt Bharat Abhiyaan (NMBA)

    Community Policing – Involve border communities in intelligence gathering.

    A multi-pronged strategy under zero tolerance for narcotics is essential to dismantle the narco-terror ecosystem and ‘Nasha Mukt Bharat’.

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    NITI Aayog, established in 2015, replaced the Planning Commission to reflect India’s transition from a centralized planned economy to a market-led, cooperative federalist model.

    Key Differences Between Planning Commission and NITI Aayog

    Similarities Between NITI Aayog and Planning Commission

    National Development Objective

    Advisory Role to Government

    Coordination Function

    Focus on Long-term Vision

    Multisectoral Engagement

    Importance of of NITI Aayog

    Reflects shift from state-led to market-led development model

    Improves Centre-State cooperation for faster execution

    Enhances accountability and outcome-based governance

    Encourages policy experimentation and innovation

    NITI Aayog reflects India’s evolving needs as a 21st-century, globally integrated economy.

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    India has installed nuclear capacity of around 8,180 MW. With the government aiming to triple this capacity to 22,480 MW by 2031-2032, the debate centers on balancing India’s soaring base-load energy demands with the strategic, financial, and environmental complexities of nuclear expansion.

    Need to Keep Expanding the Nuclear Energy Programme

    Reliable Base-Load Power: Unlike intermittent solar and wind energy, nuclear plants operate at very high capacity factors (85-90%).

    Supports Net-Zero Goals: Nuclear energy is a low-carbon source that helps reduce dependence on coal and supports India’s 2070 Net-Zero and Glasgow Panchamrit commitments.

    Advancing the Three-Stage Programme: With the PFBR at Kalpakkam attaining criticality, India can progress toward thorium-based long-term energy security.

    Low Land Requirement: Nuclear plants generate large amounts of electricity within a compact area, unlike extensive solar parks and wind farms.

    Private Investment through the SHANTI Act: Allows regulated private and foreign participation, including up to 49% equity in civilian nuclear projects.

    Commercialization of SMRs: India aims to operationalize indigenous Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) like the Bharat SMR-200 by 2033, offering lower costs and enhanced safety.

    Ensures Grid Stability: Nuclear power provides stable base-load support essential for integrating large-scale renewable energy into the national grid.

    Enhances Strategic Autonomy: Post-2008 NSG waiver, nuclear expansion strengthens India’s geopolitical standing and civil nuclear partnerships with countries like France, Russia, and the United States.

    Employment: The sector boosts advanced manufacturing and skilled employment through firms like Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited and Larsen & Toubro under the Make in India initiative.

    Fears and Challenges Associated with Nuclear Energy

    Import Dependence in Supply Chains: Despite progress in domestic manufacturing, India still relies on imports for critical high-precision nuclear components and instrumentation.

    Financial and Market Risks: High capital costs, long payback periods, tariff uncertainty, and lack of assured long-term PPAs reduce investor confidence in nuclear projects.

    Public Resistance and Safety Concerns: Projects like Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant and Jaitapur have witnessed protests over radiation fears and displacement.

    Regulatory Uncertainty for SMRs: The absence of a dedicated regulatory framework for Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) creates uncertainty for new technology developers.

    Concerns over Supplier Liability: Changes under the SHANTI Act reducing supplier liability have raised concerns about weakening accountability and quality control standards.

    The “Act of God” Indemnity Gap: The SHANTI Act indemnifies operators for accidents caused by “grave natural disasters” marking a shift away from India’s traditional absolute liability principle.

    Fear of Nuclear Disasters: Incidents such as the Chernobyl disaster and Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster continue to shape public anxiety regarding reactor safety.

    Radioactive Waste Disposal: Safe long-term storage of high-level radioactive waste remains technologically and politically challenging worldwide.

    Security Vulnerabilities: Nuclear facilities face risks from cyberattacks, sabotage, drone strikes, and other asymmetric security threats. Eg- Kudankulam Plant Malware attack.

    Land Acquisition: Environmental concerns, local protests, and legal disputes continue to delay projects at sites like Jaitapur and Kovvada.

    Water Use and Thermal Pollution: Reactors require large quantities of cooling water, while discharge of heated water can harm nearby aquatic ecosystems.

    Human Capital Crisis: Declining academic interest has led many institutions, including IIT, Madras and IIT Bombay, to discontinue nuclear engineering programmes.

    Supply Chain and Execution Bottlenecks: Domestic suppliers face cash-flow shortages, skilled labour gaps, and quality compliance issues, causing delays in NPCIL’s fleet-mode construction projects.

    Way Forward

    Dedicated SMR Regulatory Framework: The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board should create a specialized framework for SMRs to accelerate safe commercialization.

    Develop Innovative Financing Mechanisms: Eg- Long-term low-interest financing, green bonds, Viability Gap Funding (VGF), and specialized insurance mechanisms.

    Strengthen Domestic Supply Chains: Should expand fleet-mode procurement and support domestic industries in producing advanced nuclear components to reduce import dependence and project costs.

    Ensure Independent Nuclear Regulation: The Atomic Energy Regulatory Board must be given greater functional and financial autonomy to ensure credible safety oversight.

    Revive Nuclear Talent Pipelines: Support nuclear engineering programmes through scholarships, research grants, and assured internships to build skilled manpower.

    Expand the Indian Nuclear Insurance Pool (INIP): Strengthening INIP through General Insurance Corporation of India can provide better coverage for accident liability.

    With the SHANTI Act and the Kalpakkam breakthrough, India has gained strong momentum for nuclear expansion. Effective implementation can help build a sustainable, self-reliant, and resilient clean energy future.

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    Biotechnology involves using living organisms and biological systems to develop useful products and processes. India is now among the world’s top 12 biotechnology hubs.

    Activity in the field of Biotechnology in India

    Robust Government Policy: Initiatives like the National Biotechnology Development Strategy 2021-2025 have provided a roadmap for a $150 billion bio-economy by 2025.

    Institutional Framework: The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) and BIRAC provide critical seed funding and mentorship to over 5,000 startups.

    Cost-Effective R&D: India offers a significant cost advantage (nearly 33% lower) in R&D and manufacturing compared to developed nations, attracting Global Capability Centers (GCCs).

    Vast Biodiversity and Genetic Pool: India’s diverse climatic zones and ethnic genetic diversity provide a massive “natural laboratory” for genomic research and agricultural biotech.

    Human Capital: A steady influx of STEM graduates (over 2 million annually) provides the technical workforce required for high-end lab work and clinical trials.

    Infrastructure Growth: The establishment of specialized Biotech Parks offers “plug-and-play” facilities for rapid scaling. Eg- Genome Valley in Hyderabad.

    FDI Liberalization: 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is permitted under the automatic route for greenfield projects, boosting capital infusion.

    Digital Integration: The use of AI and Big Data in bioinformatics, supported by the National Supercomputing Mission has accelerated drug discovery and protein folding research.

    Pandemic Legacy: The successful indigenous development of vaccines (e.g., Covaxin) proved India’s “Proof of Concept” to the world, triggering massive reinvestment in the sector.

    Activity benefitting the field of Biopharma

    Global Vaccine Leadership: India now supplies approximately 60% of the world’s vaccines, earning the title Pharmacy of the World.

    Increase Economical Value: The Indian bioeconomy reached an estimated $130-$165.7 billion in 2024, with projections to reach $300 billion by 2030.

    Shift to Biosimilars: Biotechnology has enabled India to move beyond simple generics to complex Biosimilars. India has the highest number of biosimilars approved globally.

    Precision Medicine: Allowed biopharma companies to develop targeted therapies for cancer and rare genetic disorders tailored to the Indian populations

    Clinical Trial Hub: Improved regulatory frameworks such as New Drugs and Clinical Trial Rules, 2019 and biotech expertise have made India a preferred destination for multi-centric global clinical trials.

    Reduced Import Dependency: Local production of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) and Key Starting Materials (KSMs) through fermentation technology is reducing reliance on imports.

    Innovation in Biologics: Companies like Zydus Cadila and Dr. Reddy’s are now shifting from “imitative” to “innovative” R&D, focusing on novel biologics for autoimmune diseases.

    Diagnostics Revolution: The biotech boom led to the rapid development of low-cost, molecular diagnostic kits such as RT-PCR, CRISPR-based ‘Feluda’ tests, improving healthcare penetration.

    Major challenges

    High Capital Intensity: Developing a single biosimilar costs $100-250 million, deterring smaller Indian firms from competing.

    Complex Manufacturing Requirements: Biologics require ultra-pure environments, even a 1°C temperature shift can spoil entire production batches.

    Innovation Deficit: India still invests only 7-8% of revenue in R&D compared to 20%+ by global innovators.

    Skill Gap in Advanced Tech: Shortage of professionals trained in bioinformatics, transcriptomics, and computational biology slows down innovation.

    Global Intellectual Property (IP) Conflicts: Navigating the “patent thickets” of global biopharma giants remains a major legal challenge for biosimilars.

    Infrastructure Deficit in NAMs: Lack of standardized, industry-ready laboratories for non-animal methodologies across the country.

    Supply Chain Fragility: India remains dependent on imported raw materials like specialized cell culture media for biotech production.

    Way forward

    Strengthening Regulatory Cadre: Creating a dedicated “Scientific Review Cadre” within CDSCO to match global approval timelines.

    Expanding Clinical Trial Capacity: Establishing a national network of 1,000 accredited clinical trial sites to accelerate drug development.

    Investing in Biofoundries under BioE3 Policy to provide common infrastructure for startups to test and scale.

    Academic-Industry Collaboration: Upgrading seven NIPERs into “Centers of Excellence” for translational research and high-end skilling.

    Strategic Use of Free Trade Agreements: Leveraging FTAs with the EU and UK to harmonize quality standards and boost exports.

    By bridging the gap between laboratory research and commercial biopharma, India is moving toward Atmanirbhar Bharat in healthcare.

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    Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability of life forms within a given ecosystem, region, or the entire planet. India is recognized as one of the world’s 17 mega-biodiverse countries, hosting 7-8% of the world’s recorded species on just 2.4% of the global land area.

    Biodiversity in India

    Biogeographic Diversity – Presence of 10 distinct biogeographic zones based on climate, relief and ecology.

    Ecosystem Diversity – Eg- Mangroves of Sundarbans, coral reefs of Lakshadweep, alpine meadows of Himalaya.

    Species Richness – Over 47,000 plant species and 1,00,000+ animal species (ZSI & BSI estimates).

    Endemism – India ranks fifth in reptiles and seventh in amphibians. Eg- Lion-tailed macaque in Western Ghats, Nilgiri tahr in Nilgiris.

    Biodiversity Hotspots – Four global hotspots lie partly in India due to high endemism and threat levels. Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats-Sri Lanka, Sundaland (Nicobar).

    Altitudinal Variation – Eg- Tropical sal forests in foothills vs alpine rhododendrons in upper Himalaya.

    Agricultural Diversity: India’s share of global crop diversity is 44%, compared to the world average of 11%

    Biological Diversity Act, 2002

    Objectives

    Conservation of Biological Diversity

    Sustainable Use of Biological Resources

    Benefit Sharing with Local Communities

    Role of Biological Diversity Act, 2002 in Conservation of Flora and Fauna

    Provides legal Backing to implement Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

    Three-Tier Institutional Mechanism – Establishes NBA, SBBs, and BMCs for decentralised biodiversity governance.

    Access Regulation to prevent bio-piracy. Eg- Foreign companies need NBA approval for bio-resource use.

    Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) – Ensures fair and equitable sharing of benefits with local communities.

    Protection of Traditional Knowledge – Eg- Kani tribe benefit-sharing from Jeevani drug in Kerala.

    People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) by Biodiversity Management Committees – Legal documentation of local flora, fauna and traditional practices.

    Creation of National, State and Local Biodiversity Funds for conservation activities.

    Challenges in Implementation

    Weak Enforcement – Only ~2.78 lakh PBRs completed.

    Lengthy approvals and compliance burden deter research.

    Low Awareness of ABS rights among Local Communities

    Limited Coordination Between Agencies

    Insufficient Protection of Digital Sequence Information (DSI)

    Biological Diversity Act, 2002 is a cornerstone of biodiversity governance in India.

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