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Exam Year: 2020

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    Urban flooding is defined as the inundation of property in a built environment, caused by rainfall overwhelming the capacity of drainage systems. As per NDMA, it is distinct from rural flooding, as developed catchments increase flood peaks by 1.8 to 8 times and flood volumes by up to 6 times.

    Reasons Behind Urban Flooding

    Natural causes

    Natural meteorological phenomena like cyclones, cloud bursts. Eg- Cyclone Tauktae in Mumbai.

    Topography- Many Indian cities are located in floodplains or low-lying coastal zones. Eg- Mumbai on the Konkan coast, Kolkata in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.

    Anthropogenic causes

    Outdated Drainage Standards- Most Indian city drains are designed for 12-25 mm/hour rainfall, whereas 2024-2026 patterns show frequent events of 80-120 mm/hour. Eg- Mumbai’s British-era drainage

    Climate Change – Increase in short-duration, high-intensity rainfall events. Eg- In 2005 Mumbai witnessed 37 inches of rainfall in only 24 hours.

    Poor urban planning and encroachment on wetlands

    Bengaluru has lost 80% of its lakes

    Chennai has lost 85% of its wetlands. (WWF)

    Concretisation – Expansion of concrete roads, pavements, and buildings reducing infiltration.

    Unregulated dumping of solid waste blocks drains, and stormwater systems

    Deforestation reduces the land’s ability to absorb water, causing rapid runoff into urban areas.

    Weak Enforcement – Lack of floodplain zoning and non-compliance with building regulations.

    Sudden release of water from dams and lakes – Eg- Pune Floods due to Opening of Khadakwasla dam.

    Illegal river sand mining reduces the water retention capacity of the waterbody, increasing the speed and scale of stormwater flow. Eg- Cauvery River bed, Tamil Nadu.

    Urban Heat Island (UHI) Effect- increases localized rainfall intensity over cities. Eg- Delhi and Mumbai experience 30% higher rainfall than their rural outskirts during the same storm.

    Fragmented Urban Governance – Separate authorities for planning, drainage, water, and environment leads to poor coordination.

    Remedial Measures- Towards Lasting Resilience

    Governance and Planning Measures

    Integrated Urban Flood Management Plans – City-specific flood resilience strategies aligned with master plans.

    Blue-Green Master Planning under the AMRUT 2.0 scheme. Eg- No-Development Zones on floodplains and wetlands.

    Unified Urban Water Authority on lines of Hyderabad Disaster Response and Asset Protection Agency

    Empowering local ward committees to conduct “desilting audits” and manage localized waste collection.

    Urban Climate Emergency Fund- Creating a dedicated fund for “Climate-Proofing” old infrastructure. Eg- widening British-era drains in Mumbai.

    Technological measures

    Adopting the “Sponge City” model by using permeable pavements, rain gardens, and bioswales to absorb 70% of rainwater at the source.

    Nature-Based Solutions (NBS) – Urban wetlands and green corridors as flood buffers. Eg- Netherlands’ “Room for the River” concept.

    Upgrading Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS)- Eg- Tokyo’s G-Cans – During typhoons or torrential rains, it diverts the overflowing waters of various rivers.

    Real-Time Dam Management- Using AI-driven simulations to coordinate dam releases with downstream urban capacity.

    Urban flooding in 2026 is a “crisis of governance”. There is a need to move from construction-centric growth to hydrology-centric planning for truly SMART cities.

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    Customs represent the “inherited wisdom” of a society, providing a sense of identity and continuity. However, when they become rigid and immune to questioning, they can lead to obscurantism i.e. deliberate suppression of facts, logic, and scientific inquiry.

    Customs and traditions suppressing reason and leading to obscurantism

    Blind Ritualism – Mechanical adherence discourages questioning and rational inquiry. Eg- Astrology determining marriage, education, and career decisions.

    Moral Absolutism – Customs treated as eternal truths beyond questioning. Eg- practice of Nikah Halala or rigid Purdah systems

    Superstitions – Fear-based practices override scientific thinking. Eg- Witch-hunting in some tribal belts.

    Caste-Based Discrimination – Tradition legitimises hierarchy and inequality. Eg- Persistence of untouchability practices.

    Patriarchal Customs restrict autonomy and rational reform. Eg- Child marriage and son meta preference.

    Religious Orthodoxy – Dogmatic interpretations suppress dissent. Eg- honor killings.

    Resistance to Social Reform – Tradition used to justify the status quo. Eg- Opposition sabrimala temple entry for women.

    Fear of social boycott silences rational voices. Eg- Khap panchayat diktats.

    Obstruction to Scientific Temper – Eg- Faith healing replacing medical treatment or vaccine hesitancy among tribals

    Educational Constraints – Eg- Restrictions on girls’ education in conservative communities.

    Legal Stagnation – Laws based on “customary practice” often protect outdated behaviors that modern reason would deem criminal. Eg- legal immunity for Marital Rape

    Counter-Argument- The Rationality of Tradition

    Cultural Identity and Stability – Traditions ensure social cohesion. Eg- Family and kinship systems.

    Scientific nature of traditions and customs. Eg- use of Turmeric (Haldi) for its antiseptic properties

    Traditions act as ethical frameworks and provide moral guidance. Eg- Values of ahimsa, dharma, tolerance.

    Reform from Within Tradition – Many reform movements emerged internally. Eg- Buddhism, Bhakti movement.

    Adaptive Nature of Traditions – Customs evolve with social change. Eg- greater acceptance of widow remarriage

    Ecological Conservation – customs establish a symbiotic relationship with nature. Eg- Sacred Groves (Devrai)

    Social Safety Nets – Traditions of collectivism provide psychological and material support. Eg- Langar tradition in Sikhism

    The need of the hour is to harmonise tradition with reason, scientific temper, and constitutional morality, ensuring cultural continuity without compromising rational progress.

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    India’s education system has witnessed a major transformation through digital initiatives, especially under the digital India mission and after the COVID-19 period.

    Contributions of digital initiatives to the education system

    Expanding Access and Inclusion – Digital platforms have taken education to remote and underserved areas.

    Democratization of Quality Content – High-quality lectures from premier institutions are freely accessible. Eg- SWAYAM offers courses from IITs, central universities, and NITs.

    Continuity of Learning – Eg- Online classes and TV-based learning during COVID-19 lockdowns.

    Teacher Capacity Building– Eg- Online teacher training modules on DIKSHA and NISHTHA programmes.

    Multi-Modal Learning- Eg- PM e-Vidya integrating DTH channels, radio, and online learning.

    Bridging Regional and Language Barriers – Content available in regional languages improves inclusivity.

    Enhancing Governance and Transparency – Eg- UDISE+ (Unified District Information System for Education) provides real-time data on school infrastructure, teacher availability, and student enrollment

    Self-Paced and Lifelong Learning -Eg- Online certification and skill courses for working professionals

    Cost Effectiveness and Scalability – One-time digital content creation serves millions.

    Virtual Labs allow STEM students to perform complex science experiments digitally.

    Digital initiatives have also catered to Children with Special Needs (CWSN) through “Digitally Accessible Information System” (DAISY) and sign-language videos on the e-Pathshala portal.

    Automated Permanent Academic Account Registry (APAAR) or “One Nation, One Student ID”, provides a 12-digit digital ID for every student to store all their academic achievements

    Challenges

    Rural-Urban divide- only 18.47% of rural schools have internet access compared to 47.29% of urban schools.

    Infrastructure gaps – Only about 24% of rural children had access to digital devices for learning (ASER report).

    Digital Illiteracy among Parents leads to a “guidance gap” at home.

    Language Barriers- the “advanced technical content” is still predominantly available in English

    Excessive screen time leads to

    Eye strain

    Exposure to “adult” content online

    Reduced physical activity – rising obesity and social isolation

    Gender Digital Gap – Girls have less access to devices and connectivity.

    Retention challenges – Eg- less than 4% of SWAYAM students have completed their courses since its launch in 2017

    Way Forward

    Replicating Kerala’s Hi-Tech School Project – every classroom equipped with a projector and high-speed LAN.

    Leveraging CSR funds to provide solar-powered tablets to students in “Aspirational Districts” .

    Using AI-based real-time translation tools to make high-end STEM content available in regional languages. Eg- “Bhashini” approach.

    Gamified Learning- Integrating Gamification to increase student engagement.

    Introducing “Digital Citizenship” as a core subject to teach students about internet safety, misinformation, and ethical AI usage.

    Public-Private Partnerships for leveraging EdTech innovation. Eg- Collaboration with start-ups for interactive content.

    These measures can ensure that digital education becomes a powerful enabler of inclusive, future-ready, and outcome-oriented learning in India.

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    Interlinking of Rivers refers to the transfer of water from surplus river basins to deficit basins through a network of canals and reservoirs. Proposed under the National Perspective Plan (1980), the project envisages 30 river links (14 Himalayan and 16 Peninsular).

    Significance of River Interlinking

    Flood Control by diverting excess monsoon flows from “surplus” rivers. Eg- Diverting water from the Kosi-Mechi link can alleviate the annual “Sorrow of Bihar.”

    Year-round Navigation-Permanent water levels in canals can facilitate a network of inland waterways. Eg- Linking Godavari-Krishna rivers may improve navigation along peninsular waterways.

    Hydropower Generation-Eg- The ILR project is estimated to add 34,000 MW to the national grid.

    Drinking Water Security-Ensures a stable supply of potable water for growing urban and rural populations.

    Regional Water Balance – Redistribution helps address spatial inequality in water availability. Eg- Water from Mahanadi or Godavari basins could support water-deficit areas of TN and Karnataka.

    Groundwater Recharge-Increased surface water availability can reduce the “blind pumping” of aquifers.

    Agricultural Intensity-Allows for multiple cropping seasons (Kharif, Rabi, and Zaid) in previously single-crop areas. Eg- in Bundelkhand and Marathwada regions

    Fisheries and Livelihoods-Creation of new reservoirs provides opportunities for large-scale aquaculture.

    Salinity Control-Freshwater diversion to deltas can prevent the ingress of seawater during low-flow seasons.

    Climate Resilience-Acts as a “National Water Grid” to buffer against the erratic monsoons expected by 2026-2030.

    Challenges in River Interlinking

    Ecological Disruption-Altering natural river flows can destroy riverine habitats and aquatic biodiversity. Eg- The Ken-Betwa link will submerge 98 km^2 of the Panna Tiger Reserve.

    Questionable Surplus-Deficit Concept – Climate variability affects river flows. Eg- Changing monsoon patterns may reduce flows in so-called surplus rivers like the Brahmaputra

    Social Displacement-Massive land acquisition leads to the uprooting of indigenous and farming communities.

    Fiscal Burden-Estimated costs exceed ₹5.5 lakh crore, leading to concerns over debt-to-benefit ratios.

    Inter-State Disputes-Water is a “State Subject,” making consensus difficult between “donor” and “recipient” states.

    Sediment Starvation-Diverting water also diverts silt, which is essential for maintaining deltas and soil fertility downstream.

    Water-Logging and Salinity-Introduction of excess surface water in arid regions can lead to “alkalinization” of soil. Similar issues were seen after the Indira Gandhi Canal project in Rajasthan.

    International Complications-Interlinking Himalayan rivers requires treaties with neighbors. Eg- Indus water treaty with Pakistan.

    Project Delays-Long gestation periods often lead to massive cost overruns.

    Large projects may overshadow decentralized water management. Eg- Watershed development programmes in Maharashtra have effectively addressed drought without large river transfers.

    Way Forward

    Scientific Assessment of Water Surplus and Deficit – Basin-level hydrological studies considering climate change impacts.

    Intra-State Prioritization-Focus on smaller links within states (like Kosi-Mechi) to avoid federal and legal hurdles.

    Virtual Water Trade-Optimize crop patterns so that water-rich regions grow thirsty crops, effectively moving water through food trade.

    Implement rainwater harvesting and watershed management before resorting to inter-basin transfers.

    Mandatory drip and sprinkler systems (Israel model) to ensure transferred water is used efficiently.

    Independent EIA that goes beyond engineering feasibility.

    A balanced approach is essential to ensure long-term water security and environmental sustainability.

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    The Himalayan glaciers are termed as the “Water Towers of Asia.” However, as per UN report, these glaciers have lost approximately 30% of their mass since 1970.

    Short-Term Impacts of Himalayan Glacier Melting

    Accelerated glacier melting temporarily increases river flow. Eg- Enhanced summer discharge observed in Indus basin rivers dependent on glacial melt.

    Glacier lake areas expanded by over 22% between 2011 and 2025, raising severe GLOF risks.

    Chamoli disaster in Uttarakhand

    South Lhonak Lake outburst in Sikkim (2023)

    Melting glaciers release sediments affecting river morphology. Eg- Increased sediment deposition in upper Ganga and Brahmaputra tributaries.

    Over 33% of India’s hydropower is currently at risk from cascading “cryospheric” disasters. Eg- Tapovan-Vishnugad hydropower project in Uttarakhand damaged during the Chamoli disaster.

    Micro-climate Shifts-The loss of white ice (albedo) leads to more heat absorption, creating “heat islands” even at high altitudes.

    Long-Term Impacts

    Most Himalayan basins are expected to pass “Peak Water” by 2030-2050, after which river flows will permanently decline. Eg- Ganga and Yamuna may eventually become “seasonal”.

    Groundwater Depletion-As surface water vanishes, farmers will over-extract aquifers, accelerating the “Water Bankruptcy” of the Indo-Gangetic plain.

    Water Quality Crisis-Lower river volumes reduce the “self-purification” capacity, concentrating pollutants like Arsenic and Fluoride.

    Groundwater Recharge Reduction – Lower river flows reduce recharge in alluvial aquifers.

    Urban Water Supply Stress – Eg- Cities like Delhi depend heavily on Yamuna and Ganga river systems.

    Ecosystem Degradation – Altered flow regimes threaten aquatic biodiversity. Eg- Habitat of the Ganges river dolphin depends on stable river flow.

    Scarcity may intensify interstate and transboundary disputes. Eg- Indus water treaty dispute with Pakistan

    Reduced freshwater inflow affects sediment transport and delta stability. Eg- accelerating erosion in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.

    Glaciers act as natural reservoirs stabilizing river flows. Loss of glaciers makes river systems more dependent on erratic monsoon rainfall.

    Way Forward

    Deploying Glacial Lake Early Warning Systems using automated radar and satellite sensors at high-risk sites.

    Springshed Management-Rejuvenating “Dharas” (mountain springs) to provide alternative water sources as glaciers retreat.

    Artificial Glaciers-Scaling the “Ice Stupa” model to store winter meltwater for spring irrigation in arid high-altitude regions.

    Climate-Resilient Infrastructure-Mandating “Cryosphere Impact Assessments” for all new dams and highways in the Himalayas.

    Ecosystem-Based Adaptation – Protect Himalayan forests and wetlands that regulate water flows.

    A strategy combining climate mitigation, scientific monitoring and sustainable water management is essential to safeguard the vital water resources originating in the Himalayas.

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    The Pala period (c. 8th-12th centuries CE) in eastern India marked the last great fluorescence of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent.

    Significance of the Pala Period in the History of Buddhism

    The Pala era represents the final organised and state-supported phase of Buddhism in India before its decline after 12th century invasions.

    Royal Patronage – Eg- Dharmapala and Devapala patronised monasteries and scholars.

    The establishment of Great Mahaviharas attracted students from Tibet, China, and Southeast Asia. Eg- Nalanda, Vikramashila, Odantapuri, Somapura.

    Development of Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism) as a dominant Buddhist tradition.

    The Pala phase saw the rise of the Sahajayana sect (“Easy Vehicle”), which simplified Buddhist practice

    Pala scholars transmitted Buddhism to Tibet and Southeast Asia. Eg- Atisha Dipankara’s role in Tibetan Buddhism.

    Growth of Buddhist Art and Architecture

    Evolution of Pala school of art. Eg- Black stone sculptures of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

    Construction of stupas and monasteries. Eg- Somapura Mahavihara (UNESCO site).

    Literary contribution – Compilation of Mahayana and Vajrayana texts. Eg- Charyapada, a collection of mystical poems composed by Buddhist Siddhas, represents the earliest form of Bengali, Assamese, and Odia literature.

    The Pala period standardized Buddhist iconography, institutionalized higher education, and internationalized the faith.

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