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Exam Year: 2024

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    Ethics is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. It acts as a ‘moral compass’ for individual and organisational conduct.

    Dimensions of Ethics Guiding Individuals

    Normative Ethics (The “Ought” Dimension)- This is the prescriptive side of ethics. It includes

    Deontology (duty-based). Eg- Respecting human dignity

    Utilitarianism (consequence-based). Eg- guides policy for “greatest good for the greatest number”

    Meta-Ethics (The “Meaning” Dimension)- It deals with the origin of moral principles. Helps solve dilemmas in emerging issues like AI ethics, ethics of biotechnology etc

    Descriptive Ethics (The “Observation” Dimension)- It provides the empirical data on “what is” rather than “what should be.”

    Virtue Ethics (The “Character” Dimension)- helps in inculcating virtues like courage, honesty, and temperance. Eg- Mahatma Gandhi cultivated the virtue of Ahimsa as a personal habit.

    Applied Ethics – Helps apply ethical principles in real life situations. Eg- Compassionate capitalism in corporate governance, Stewardship principle in environmental ethics.

    “Ethics of Care” – emphasizes the importance of interpersonal relationships and compassion.

    Dimensions of Ethics Guiding Organizations

    The Justice Dimension ensures fairness in both outcomes and processes.

    Distributive Justice- Focuses on the fair allocation of rewards and burdens. Eg- Equal Remuneration Act

    The Accountability Dimension – promotes “fiduciary duty” towards stakeholders and prevents the “systemic rot” caused by secrecy. Eg- Infosys whistleblower policy

    The Sustainability and Stewardship Dimension – Moving from a “profit-only” model to the Triple Bottom Line. Eg- IKEA’s “People & Planet Positive” strategy

    Solving the “Loyalty vs. Truth” dilemma – the Normative dimension provides the duty to the truth, while the Virtue dimension provides the courage to speak it.

    Builds consistency, predictability and smooth-functioning system based on stable, universal principles. Eg- Zomato’s menstrual leave policy

    These dimensions ensure that human actions are not impulsive but reasoned. As Jane Addams said, “Action indeed is the sole medium of expression for ethics.”

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    From just 11.2% of total IAS officers in 2011, the number of women has risen to nearly 15% in 2022.

    “I measure the progress of a community by the degree of progress which women have achieved.” – Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

    Women in Indian Culture

    Shakti- primordial source of power, energy.

    Ardhanarishvara Philosophy

    Matrushakti- Governance as caretaking.

    Women like Gargi and Maitreyi as public intellectuals and decision-makers in Sabhas.

    Gender-Specific Challenges Faced by Female Public Servants

    The “Double Burden” Syndrome- Time Use Surveys show Indian women spend nearly 5 hours/day on unpaid care work vs. 30 minutes for men.

    Glass Walls in Postings- Systematic “pigeonholing” into departments like Education, Health, or Social Welfare, while being kept away from Finance, Home, or Infrastructure.

    The “Old Boys’ Club” Exclusion- Informal networking and decision-making often happen in “after-hours” social settings that are less accessible to women.

    Under-representation at senior levels (“glass ceiling” effect)

    Infrastructure Gaps in Field Postings- Lack of functional toilets or secure overnight accommodation in remote blocks.

    Perception of “Weakness”- Subordinates or local political leaders in patriarchal pockets resist taking orders from a female officer.

    Safety and Harassment- Subtle forms of workplace sexism and the threat of physical harm in law-and-order roles.

    The Mobility Penalty- Frequent transfers are harder for women leading to “deputation” requests

    Taking maternity leave is often viewed as a “loss of productivity,” affecting seniority or key assignments.

    Tokenism- appointed to committees merely to fulfill a “gender quota” rather than for expertise.

    Internalized Bias- The pressure to over-perform to prove “toughness,” which can lead to excessive stress and burnout compared to male peers.

    Measures to Increase Efficiency and Maintain Probity

    Institutionalizing Hybrid Work- Following global best practices (Scandinavia)

    Strict POSH implementation with real enforcement – Functional ICCs, time-bound inquiries, protection from retaliation.

    Establishing civil services board for transparent transfers (2nd ARC)

    Mandatory CrĂšche Facilities at every Secretariat and District Collectorate.

    Gender-sensitive infrastructure – Eg- Standardised “safe field deployment” norms for night duty

    Creating networks like the “IAS Women’s Association” to provide juniors with strategies to handle political pressure and maintain probity.

    Sensitization- Mandatory behavioral training through Mission Karmayogi to foster professional respect.

    Gender Budgeting in Administration- For the professional development and safety requirements of female staff within departments.

    The “highest perfection” in public service can only be achieved when the workforce is truly representative

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    The crisis of climate change is fundamentally a crisis of values. It is the product of pursuing material progress by disregarding planetary boundaries.

    Global Level- Systemic Harmonization

    Decarbonization of Global Trade- Eg- taxing products imported from high-pollution regions

    Climate Finance Mobilization- Fulfilling the $100 billion annual commitment by developed countries

    Protection of global commons – Eg- early finalization of Global Plastic Treaty to protect oceans

    Government Level- act as the “Architect of Sustainability”

    Rights of Nature Legislation- Formally granting legal personhood to major rivers, mountains, and forests. Eg- Ganga in india

    Energy Transition under Panchamrit Targets- 500 GW from non-fossil sources by 2030.

    Green Urban Planning- Developing “Sponge Cities” with permeable pavements and urban wetlands to manage flooding and “Heat Island” effects.

    Business Level

    Adopting Net-Zero Roadmaps- Measuring and reducing Scope 1, 2, and 3 emissions

    Product Stewardship- Designing products that can be easily repaired or recycled

    ESG Integration in investment decisions, recognizing that “Sustainability is a Competitive Advantage.”

    Supply Chain Decarbonization- ensuring that raw materials are sourced ethically and without deforestation.

    Bio-Inclusive Boardrooms- Eg- “Ecological Representative” or “Voice for Future Generations” on corporate boards

    Society Level- Cultural Re-engineering

    Mainstreaming “Environmentalism of the Poor”- Eg- Chipko or Appico movements where local tribes are the primary guardians of forests.

    Moving from “Environmental Science” to “Environmental Ethics” in school and college curricula

    Community-Led Restoration- Eg- volunteer movements for cleaning coastlines or planting “Miyawaki” urban forests.

    Citizen Level- LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment) movement

    Mindful Consumption through ethical restraint

    Switching from a “throwaway culture” to one of repair and reuse

    lifestyle of “Enoughness”-voluntarily limiting consumption

    “Pro-Planet” dietary Shift to protect water and soil. Eg- millet-based diets

    Energy Citizenship- Transitioning to rooftop solar and adopting energy-efficient appliances (LEDs/BLDC fans).

    Waste Segregation at Source- helps 100% composting or recycling at the municipal level.

    Green Mobility- Preferring public transport, cycling, or Electric Vehicles (EVs)

    By applying the Precautionary Principle to our technology and Intergenerational Equity to our economy, we can move to the trajectory of “Great Restoration.”

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    India’s borders with China (3,488 km) and Pakistan (3,323 km) are among the most militarized and volatile in world. It is marred by territorial disputes and a transition toward high-tech “hybrid warfare”

    Conflicting Issues and Security Challenges

    India-China Border (Line of Actual Control – LAC)

    Strategic Encirclement- CPEC passing through Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) is seen by India as a violation of sovereignty.

    High-Altitude Standoffs- heavy troop deployments post 2020 Galwan clash. Despite a disengagement agreement in October 2024, mutual distrust remains high.

    China’s rapid construction of “Xiaokang” (dual-use model villages) and airfields near the LAC puts tactical pressure on Indian defenses.

    India-Pakistan Border (International Border & Line of Control – LoC)

    State-Sponsored Terrorism- Continued support for militant groups like LeT and JeM.

    Unresolved status of Jammu & Kashmir and frequent ceasefire violations along the LoC

    Recent Military Escalation- Following the Pahalgam attack, India launched “Operation Sindoor”

    Drone-Based Narco-Terrorism in Punjab through Golden Crescent

    Role of OGW – generate pro-terror content, circulate videos and organise protests to delegitimise the state.

    Sir Creek Issue remains unresolved

    Development Initiatives- BADP and BIM Schemes (“Development-as-Defense” strategy)

    Border Area Development Programme (BADP)

    Centrally Sponsored Scheme to meet the special developmental needs of people living within 0–50 km of the International Border.

    “Model Villages” with socio-economic infrastructure

    Infrastructure Development- Eg- Construction of link roads, bridges, and PHCs

    Livelihood & Skill Development- vocational training in hospitality, agriculture, and handicrafts

    Convergence with the Vibrant Villages Programme (VVP).

    Promotion of Border Tourism- Develops “Border Haats” and tourism circuits

    Digital Connectivity- Implementation of e-Chaupals and Wi-Fi hotspots

    Border Infrastructure and Management (BIM) Scheme

    For the period 2021-22 to 2025-26 with an outlay of .

    Central Sector Scheme (100% funding by MHA) focused on “Hard Security Infrastructure” and technological modernization.

    Smart Fencing (CIBMS)- uses laser walls, thermal imagers, and unattended ground sensors to detect intrusions.

    All-weather Connectivity- Construction of strategic roads and tunnels by the Border Roads Organization (BRO). Eg- Sela Tunnel and Shinku La Tunnel.

    Frontier Highways- Eg- 1,800 km Highway in Arunachal Pradesh

    Creation of new Border Outposts (BOPs) and Company Operating Bases (COBs) with advanced “hard-kill” anti-drone systems.

    The integration of modern technology with civil-military cooperation is essential to create “Multi-layered Security Shield.”

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    Recently, heavy pre-monsoon thundershowers in Bengaluru led to severe Floods. Unlike riverine floods, urban floods are highly localised, rapid-onset, and short-duration, but cause disproportionately high economic and infrastructural damage.

    Causes of urban flooding

    Natural causes

    Natural meteorological phenomena like cyclones, cloud bursts. Eg- Cyclone Tauktae in Mumbai.

    Climate Change – Increase in short-duration, high-intensity rainfall events. Eg- In 2005 Mumbai witnessed 37 inches of rainfall in only 24 hours.

    Sea level rise: by 2050, Mumbai will witness a 25% increase in the intensity of flash floods accompanied by a half-meter rise in the sea level (McKinsey India report)

    Topography: Many Indian cities are located in floodplains or low-lying coastal zones. Eg- Mumbai on the Konkan coast, Kolkata in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.

    Anthropogenic causes

    Inadequate Stormwater Drainage Infrastructure – Old, undersized, and poorly maintained drainage networks. Eg- Mumbai’s British-era drainage

    Poor urban planning and encroachment on wetlands

    Bengaluru has lost 80% of its lakes

    Chennai has lost 85% of its wetlands. (WWF)

    Concretisation – Expansion of concrete roads, pavements, and buildings reducing infiltration.

    Unregulated dumping of solid waste blocks drains, and stormwater systems

    Deforestation reduces the land’s ability to absorb water, causing rapid runoff into urban areas.

    Weak Enforcement – Lack of floodplain zoning and non-compliance with building regulations.

    Sudden release of water from dams and lakes – Eg- Pune Floods due to Opening of Khadakwasla dam.

    Illegal river sand mining reduces the water retention capacity of the waterbody, increasing the speed and scale of stormwater flow. Eg- Cauvery River bed, Tamil Nadu.

    Two major urban floods in the last two decades in India

    Mumbai Floods – 2005

    Trigger – Extremely heavy rainfall (~944 mm in 24 hours)

    Key Features

    Complete failure of stormwater drainage system.

    Severe flooding along the Mithi River floodplain due to encroachment.

    Massive disruption of transport, power supply, and economic activity.

    Exposed vulnerability of coastal megacities to extreme rainfall.

    Chennai Floods – 2015

    Trigger – Intense northeast monsoon rainfall

    Key Features

    Encroachment of wetlands like Pallikaranai marsh.

    Poor coordination in reservoir water release aggravated flooding.

    Prolonged waterlogging in residential and industrial zones.

    Policies and Frameworks in India to Tackle Urban Flooding

    NDMA Guidelines on Urban Flooding (2010) – Recommend city-specific urban flood management plans.

    National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016 – Integrates urban flood risk reduction within disaster preparedness and mitigation.

    Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) – Investment in stormwater drainage, sewerage, and water infrastructure.

    Smart Cities Mission – Use of GIS mapping, real-time sensors, and flood monitoring systems.

    Early Warning Systems – IMD and CWC providing impact-based rainfall forecasts.

    Protection of wetlands under Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules.

    Model Building Bye Laws by MoHUA – all buildings having a plot size of 100 sq.m. or, more shall mandatorily include the complete proposal of rainwater harvesting.

    MoHUA has issued Standard Operating Procedures (SoPs) on Urban Flooding in 2017 and published manual on Storm Water Drainage Systems in 2019

    As per NITI aayog, over 40% of India’s population will reside in urban areas by 2030. Thus, flood resilient urban future is essential for Viksit Bharat @2047

    Internal Security

    LWE and N-E insurgency

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    India has second-largest social media market with 491 million active users. However, in 2025, these platforms are central to “Grey Zone Warfare” as their architecture creates a “security paradox”

    Challenges Posed by Social Media & Encrypted Messaging

    Social Media Challenges

    Algorithmic Echo Chambers creating polarized “digital silos”. (India Hate Lab report)

    Cognitive Warfare- Eg- “Bot-farms” to build anti-India narratives

    Cyber Stalking and Harassment – Eg- Women targeted through doxxing and revenge porn.

    Online Radicalisation – Eg- ISIS recruitment through social media.

    Encrypted Messaging Challenges

    Traceability Paradox- End-to-end encryption prevents law enforcement from identifying the “first originator”

    Operational Backbone for Terror- Eg- ISIS and LeT using Telegram or Signal

    Serve as the front-end for darknet markets dealing in narcotics and illegal firearms.

    Shadow Financial Hubs- Eg- use of “self-destructing” messages for “Digital Arrest” extortions

    Measures Adopted at Various Levels

    Legal and Regulatory Framework

    IT Rules, 2021 – mandate Traceability, requiring significant social media intermediaries to identify the “first originator” on court orders.

    DPDP Act- Requires data breach notifications to the Data Protection Board within 72 hours.

    Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita Section 353 penalizes the spread of misinformation causing public fear.

    Institutional and Operational Measures

    I4C acts as the national nodal point for identifying and removing unlawful content.

    CyberDome Project (Kerala) to monitor the Darknet and social media for criminal patterns.

    “Operation Blackface” of Maharashtra Police Cyber Department for crack down on Child Sexual Abuse Material (CSAM)

    Global and Social Initiatives

    India actively participates in the UN Convention against Cybercrime (2024) and the Christchurch Call to eliminate extremist content.

    Initiatives like Cyber Swachhta Kendra and the 1930 Helpline promote “Digital Hygiene.”

    Suggested Remedies to Address the Problem

    Metadata Analysis over Decryption- By analyzing “who talks to whom, when, and from where” (metadata), to identify criminal clusters.

    Mandating social media platforms to undergo independent audits of their “Recommendation Engines.”

    Implementing mandatory Digital Watermarking for all AI-generated content (deepfakes).

    Establishing an independent, statutory Digital Ombudsman to provide a “Single-Window” grievance redressal mechanism for citizens

    Mandatory SIM-Binding for messaging apps to prevent the use of international virtual numbers in local scams like “Digital Arrests.”

    Integrating “Cognitive Defense” and digital civics into school and college curricula.

    Formalizing a real-time data-sharing bridge between the I4C and tech giants to instantly “freeze” fraudulent financial flows during the Golden Hour.

    Community Fact-Checking Models- Empowering certified organizations with “Priority Reporting” status on platforms to flag virally dangerous misinformationce.

    Push for a Global Cyber-Extradition Framework to ensure that criminals operating from “Safe Haven” countries can be prosecuted.

    Sovereign Messaging Alternatives- Eg- apps like Sandes for government communication.

    Adopting global best practices

    “Duty of Care” Principle (UK)- Shifting burden of safety from the user to the platform.

    EU’s Digital Services Act for Algorithmic Transparency

    Estonia’s e-residency program using Blockchain

    For “Safe and Trusted Cyberspace” there is need for a “Whole-of-Nation” approach

    Border Management and Security Forces

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    Asteroids are rocky, airless remnants from the early formation of the solar system, primarily orbiting the Sun between Mars and Jupiter (asteroid belt). Some asteroids, known as Near-Earth Objects (NEOs), have orbits that bring them close to Earth, raising concerns about impact hazards.

    Key facts about asteroids

    Types –

    C-type (carbonaceous, most common)

    S-type (silicaceous)

    M-type (metal-rich)

    The total mass of all the asteroids combined is less than that of Earth’s Moon.

    Threat from asteroids

    Historical Evidence – The Chicxulub asteroid impact (~66 million years ago) led to the extinction of dinosaurs.

    Probability Assessment

    Extinction-level asteroids (>10 km) are extremely rare

    City or regional-scale impacts (50-300 m) are more frequent and pose serious human and economic risks.

    Current Scientific Consensus

    Low probability, high impact risk.

    No known large asteroid is on a confirmed collision course with Earth in the foreseeable future.

    No global policy framework or convention to prevent asteroid impact

    Strategies Developed to Prevent or Mitigate Asteroid Impact

    Detection and Tracking – Ground- and space-based surveys continuously monitor NEOs.

    Kinetic Impact Deflection – A spacecraft collides with the asteroid to slightly alter its trajectory. Demonstrated successfully by NASA’s DART mission (2022).

    Gravity Tractor – A spacecraft hovers near the asteroid, using mutual gravitational attraction to gradually change its path.

    Nuclear Deflection (Last Resort) – Use of a nuclear device near (not on) the asteroid to vaporise surface material.

    NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, accurately characterizes the orbits of all known near-Earth objects, predicts their close approaches with Earth

    The International Asteroid Warning Network (IAWN) – UN-endorsed, global collaboration of over 60 scientific institutions that detects, tracks, and characterizes Near-Earth Objects (NEOs).

    United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) has recognised asteroid impact hazards as a global risk transcending national boundaries.

    While extinction-level impacts are extremely rare, the consequences would be catastrophic, justifying sustained vigilance.

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    PDS is the world’s largest food transfer programme and social safety net, accounting for around 50% of India’s overall social assistance budget. Buffer Stock is the foundational pillar of this system.

    Buffer Stock Norms

    Introduced during the 4th Five Year Plan (1969-74).

    Fixed by cabinet committee on Economic Affairs on quarterly basis

    In 2025, rice and wheat stocks in Central Pool stands at 736 Lakh MT against buffer stock norm of 411 Lakh MT

    Importance of Buffer Stocks for Stabilising Agricultural Prices in India

    Supports farmers through MSP procurement: Prevents distress sales during bumper harvests.

    Controls consumer prices through Open Market Sale Scheme. Eg- In 2022-23, FCI released 34.82 lakh tonnes of wheat.

    Ensures food security: ensures uninterrupted supply for NFSA, ICDS, PM-POSHAN (Cover 81 crore people)

    Checks hoarding: Strategic release of stocks curbs artificial scarcity and black-marketing. Eg- Release of Pulses by NAFED

    Acts as a safety net during supply disruptions and emergencies. Eg- during COVID.

    Inter-state distribution stability: Ensures consistent supply to deficit states.

    Market confidence: Adequate stocks signal stability and prevent panic buying

    Export of extra produce: Eg- Surplus wheat from buffer stocks was exported to Africa in 2021

    Challenges Associated with the Storage of Buffer Stock

    Excessive stocking by FCI increases carrying costs. Eg- Central pool rice stocks 4 times the buffer

    Heavy reliance on CAP (cover-and-plinth) storage leads to high wastage. (40% of total food)

    High transport costs due to concentration of procurement in limited states. Eg- 60% godowns in 5 states.

    Overstocking results in rotting and quality deterioration. Over 6 lakh tonnes of foodgrains rotted in FCI godowns

    High Storage Cost – Eg- FCI’s annual storage cost for buffer stocks reached

    Pilferage and Theft due to poor security measures and leakages in the distribution network.

    Regional procurement imbalances: Eg- Eastern and NE states remain under-procured

    Lack of Modern Technology – lack silos, temperature control, and humidity monitoring. Only 20% of buffer stock stored in modern silos

    Environmental concerns: Excess procurement of rice strains groundwater, fertiliser use, and stubble burning.

    Way Forward

    Technological Integration: Eg- blockchain for transparent and secure buffer stock management.

    Expansion of modern silos equipped with temperature and humidity control. (Shanta Kumar Committee)

    Rural Agri-Logistics Nodes under Gati Shakti Framework to develop cold chains, aggregation centers

    Expanding FCI Private Entrepreneurs Guarantee (PEG) Scheme to involve the private sector in creating modern godowns.

    Revision of Buffer Stock Norms based on actual requirement and demand patterns. (Ashok Gulati Committee)

    Strengthening storage is essential for a more efficient, resilient grain management system.

    Agriculture Marketing and supply chains

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    As per Hyogo Framework of Action, Disaster resilience refers to the ability of individuals, communities, systems, and nations to anticipate, absorb, adapt to, and recover from the impacts of hazards while retaining essential functions.

    Determination of disaster resilience

    Exposure to Hazard – Settlements on riverbanks or seismic zones are more vulnerable. Eg- Joshimath (Uttarakhand)

    Adaptive or Coping Capacity – Ability to anticipate, respond, absorb and recover from a disaster. Eg- Japan’s high adaptive capacity to earthquakes

    Socio-economic Conditions – Poverty, marginalisation and inequity increase susceptibility to harm. Eg- Disaster induced migration

    Governance and Institutional Readiness– Eg- Singapore’s Integrated crisis management agency (SCDF)

    Environmental resilience increases or reduces hazard impact. Eg- ‘Day Zero’ in Chennai due to wetland encroachment.

    Social Networks and Support Systems: – Communities with strong social cohesion, community organizations, and support networks are more resilient to respond to and recover from disasters.

    Health status and access to healthcare services – Eg- Elderly and Children are less resilient to post disaster illness

    Elements of a Disaster Resilience Framework

    Risk Knowledge – Hazard mapping, vulnerability analysis, and risk assessments to understand who is at risk and why. Eg-GIS-based flood and landslide susceptibility maps.

    Early Warning Systems– Eg-IMD’s cyclone early-warning system reduces mortality drastically.

    Preventive Measures – Nature-based solutions, resilient infrastructure, land-use planning, seismic codes, floodplain zoning. Eg-Mangrove restoration under MISHTI.

    Preparedness & Response Capacity – Training volunteers, conducting mock drills, strengthening NDRF/SDRF capacities. Eg-Aapda Mitra programme in 350+ districts.

    Institutional ‘capacity building’ – Strong governance, coordination between NDMA, SDMA, district authorities, and urban bodies.

    Recovery, Rehabilitation & “Build Back Better” – stronger housing, better planning, safer infrastructure. Eg- Japan’s Post-2011 Tƍhoku Earthquake & Tsunami Reconstruction

    Social & Community Resilience – Inclusive decision-making, empowering women, local groups, and indigenous knowledge systems.

    Financial Resilience – Insurance, disaster funds (NDRF/SDRF), parametric insurance, contingency financing.

    Global Targets of the Sendai Framework (2015-2030)

    Reduce Global Disaster Mortality – Substantial reduction by 2030 compared to 2005-2015 baseline.

    Reduce Number of Affected People – Significant decrease in people injured, displaced, or needing basic services during disasters.

    Reduce Economic Losses – Lower global disaster-related economic losses relative to global GDP.

    Reduce Damage to Critical Infrastructure – Protect health facilities, water systems, schools, and public infrastructure.

    Increase Number of Countries with DRR Strategies – All nations to develop national and local disaster risk reduction strategies.

    Enhance International Cooperation – Increase support from developed to developing countries for capacity-building, technology, and finance.

    Ensure multi-hazard early warning systems and accessible risk information for everyone.

    Priorities for Action

    Understanding disaster risk in all its dimensions

    Strengthening disaster risk governance

    Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience

    Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to Build Back Better

    The Sendai Framework’s proactive approach is essential for making Bharat a ‘weather-ready and climate-smart’ nation.

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    As per the report of the Global Commission on the Economics of Water, the world’s water systems are under “unprecedented stress” and the demand for fresh water will outstrip supply by 40% by 2030.

    Global freshwater Crisis

    4.4 billion people lack access to safe drinking water

    703 million people have no access to clean drinking water.

    Agriculture consumes 70% of the world’s freshwater

    India

    4% of the world’s freshwater resources

    600 million Indians experience water scarcity. (NITI Aayog)

    By 2030, 700 million people could be displaced due to water shortages (UNICEF, 2025)

    Global water crisis could result in losses of up to $8 trillion over the next 25 years (Global Commission on the Economics of Water, 2024)

    Alternative Technologies That Can Solve the Freshwater Crisis

    Desalination Technologies to convert seawater/brackish water into potable water.

    Wastewater Recycling & Reuse through Membrane Bioreactors (MBR), tertiary treatment and advanced oxidation.

    Atmospheric Water Harvesting using condensation (cooling below dew point).

    Solar Distillation for low-cost, off-grid evaporation-condensation.

    Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) using recharge wells, percolation tanks and treated wastewater.

    Fog & Dew Harvesting in coastal and high-elevation areas.

    Smart Irrigation Technologies (drip, soil moisture sensors) to reduce agricultural water demand.

    Precision Leak Detection Systems using IoT to minimise distribution losses.

    Rainwater Harvesting Systems integrated with rooftops, storage tanks and recharge pits.

    Floating Solar + Desal Units for dual energy-water generation.

    Three Technologies With Key Merits and Demerits

    Atmospheric Water Harvesting (AWH) – Eg – Source Hydropanels deployed in Ladakh schools.

    Merits:

    Decentralized, off-grid water access for remote areas.

    No reliance on groundwater or rainfall.

    Scalable from household to community systems.

    Demerits:

    Low yield in low-humidity climates.

    High per-litre cost for advanced AWH systems.

    Requires maintenance of filters/desiccants.

    Wastewater Recycling & Reuse – Eg – Singapore’s NEWater, Nagpur’s Bhandewadi recycling plant.

    Merits:

    Reduces pressure on freshwater sources by closing the loop.

    Low energy requirement compared to desalination.

    Ensures year-round supply, even in dry regions.

    Demerits:

    Public resistance to potable reuse (“yuck factor”).

    Risk of contamination if systems are poorly maintained.

    High initial investment for advanced tertiary treatment.

    Desalination using Reverse Osmosis & Thermal Distillation– Eg – Israel’s Sorek RO plant, India’s Minjur RO plant (Chennai).

    Merits:

    Large and climate-independent supply from oceans.

    Useful for coastal megacities facing groundwater depletion. Eg- Mumbai

    Continuous and reliable output even in droughts.

    Demerits:

    High energy consumption, increasing carbon footprint.

    Brine discharge harms marine ecosystems.

    High capital and operating cost for poorer regions.

    A portfolio approach, not a single technology, will determine long-term water security.

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