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Exam Year: 2024

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    Terrorism refers to the use of violence or threat to create fear and achieve political, ideological, or religious objectives by targeting civilians and governments.

    Terrorism as a Threat to Global Peace and Security

    Non-traditional global security challenge undermining state sovereignty, human rights, and economic stability.

    Evolving nature – cross-border networks, online radicalization, financing through illicit trade, and use of emerging technologies (drones, crypto-assets).

    Threats

    Economic – Terrorism and organised crime linkage. Eg- role of D-Company in Bombay Blasts 1993

    Bioterrorism – Eg- use of chemical weapons in Syria

    State sponsored terrorism – Eg- Pakistan

    Cyber terrorism – Eg- online radicalization by ISIS

    Regional Instability – Eg- Taliban in Afghanistan

    United Nations Security Council’s Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) and Associated Bodies

    Established under UNSC Resolution 1373 (2001) after 9/11.

    CTC’s mandate: Enhance state co-operation and capacity building to deal with global terror

    Associated Bodies:

    CTED (Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate): Provides technical assistance to member states.

    UNOCT (UN Office of Counter-Terrorism): Coordinates UN counter-terror programs.

    FATF : Monitors terror financing and money laundering globally.

    Positive Role

    Global Framework: Universal adoption of Resolution 1373, creating a global legal framework.

    Capacity Building: Support to developing states in border management, cyber surveillance, and financial tracking.

    Curbing Terror Financing: Criminalization of fund-raising and cross-border money flows.

    Information Sharing: Enhanced coordination among INTERPOL, UNODC, and regional organizations (ASEAN, AU, SAARC).

    1267 Sanctions Regime: Travel bans and arms embargoes on listed terrorist entities.

    Limitations

    No Universal Definition of Terrorism: Political differences hinder cohesive action.

    Enforcement Limitations: CTC cannot impose sanctions; compliance depends on state will.

    Selectivity and Geopolitics: Veto politics within UNSC prioritizes strategic interests over global consensus. Eg- China blocking Masood Azhar terrorist designation

    TRF, designated a terrorist group by India, has not been formally designated as a terrorist organisation by the UNSC 1267 Sanctions Committee.

    Unequal Capacities: Developing nations lack financial and technological resources to meet obligations.

    Emerging Threats: Cyber-terrorism, lone-wolf attacks, and digital radicalization outpace global responses.

    Human Rights Concerns: Some counter-terror laws compromise due process and civil liberties.

    Lack of consensus – as per T.S. Tirumurti, the world has gone back to the era of “my terrorist” and “your terrorist” and consensus reached after 9/11, to fight terror comprehensively, has run its course.

    Way Forward

    3C Approach: Collaborate, Coordinate, and Cooperate among nations.

    UNSC Reforms: voice to Global South and democratization of decision-making.

    Early finalization of Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT)

    A comprehensive consensus-based approach on zero tolerance for corruption is needed to tackle the menace of terrorism.


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    The Public Examination (Prevention of Unfair Means) Act, 2024, was enacted to curb widespread malpractices, paper leaks, and organised cheating in recruitment and entrance examinations conducted by central authorities.

    Aims and Objectives of the Act

    Provide clear legal framework to deal with issue of paper leaks

    Defining Unfair Practices – Includes leakage of question papers, tampering of answer sheets, manipulation of computer systems, and collusion with officials or service providers.

    Empowering Examination Authorities – Allows surprise checks, blacklisting of service providers, and enhanced oversight mechanisms.

    Authorises the Centre to refer cases to Central Investigation Agencies for probing large-scale malpractices.

    Enables setting up of special courts for time-bound adjudication of offences.

    Stringent Punishments – Prescribes 3-5 years of imprisonment and fines up to , extendable for organised crimes, to restore public confidence.

    Addressing Organised Examination Crimes – Provides for property attachment and prosecution of institutions involved in organised cheating networks.

    Deterring Unfair Means – Prevents cheating, impersonation, and paper leaks, ensuring transparency, fairness, and credibility in examinations.

    Significance

    Ensuring Integrity of Public Examinations

    Deterring Organised Malpractices

    Protecting Merit and Equal Opportunity

    Enhancing Accountability of Examination Authorities

    Promoting Transparency and Trust

    Strengthening Governance and Fair Recruitment

    Coverage under the Act

    The Act applies to “Public Examinations” conducted by authorities listed in its Schedule or notified later by the Central Government.

    The Schedule presently includes:

    Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)

    Staff Selection Commission (SSC)

    Railway Recruitment Boards (RRBs)

    Institute of Banking Personnel Selection (IBPS)

    National Testing Agency (NTA) and other Central Government recruitment bodies.

    University and State Education Board examinations are not automatically covered unless specifically notified by the Central Government under Section 2 of the Act.

    Limitations of the Act

    Limited Coverage – State Boards and Universities are not automatically covered.

    No Dedicated Investigative Mechanism – Investigation left to DSP-level officers

    Technology Gaps – Insufficient use of digital tracking, encryption, and data protection tools to prevent leaks.

    Ambiguity in Defining “Unfair Means” – The broad wording may lead to subjective interpretation and misuse.

    Heavy reliance on Central Government notification powers may limit federal flexibility.

    Focuses mainly on punitive measures, not on systemic prevention and capacity-building.

    Judicial Burden – Creation of special courts without adequate infrastructure may lead to delays in trial.

    Training Deficit – Lack of awareness and training among invigilators and exam staff undermines effective implementation.

    The Act represents a major reform to uphold the integrity, fairness, and accountability of India’s examination system.

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    Since the 1991 reforms, India shifted to a market-oriented growth model. Public expenditure on social services increased from 5% of GDP (1990s) to 8% (2024-25)

    Trend of Public Expenditure on Social Services in the Post-Reforms Period

    Early Post-Reform Phase (1991-2005)

    Low and stagnant spending around 5% of GDP due to fiscal consolidation.

    Prioritisation of basic education – expansion of SSA, mid-day meal.

    Health expenditure remained low at 1% of GDP, high OOPE.

    Rights-Based Expansion Phase (2005-2015)

    Public expenditure rose to 6-7% of GDP.

    Introduction of major rights-based entitlements: MGNREGA (2005), RTI, RTE (2009), NFSA (2013).

    Focus on rural livelihood missions, inclusion programmes. Eg- DAY-NRLM

    Post-2015 Period

    Social sector spending increased to 8% of GDP (2021-22).

    Health spending reforms – decline in OOPE from 65% to 40% (2014-2024).

    Women Specific schemes: Eg- Ujjwala (10 crore LPG connections)

    Emphasis on social security. Eg- e-Shram, PM Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana.

    Increased focus on skill development, digital inclusion. Eg- JAM Trinity, PM-KVY

    In consonance with Inclusive Growth

    Extreme poverty fell from 16.2 % in 2011-12 to just 2.3 % in 2022-23

    MGNREGA, NFSA ensured income security and food security (67% population coverage).

    Human Capital Improvement – Life expectancy increased from 58 years (1990) to 73 years.

    Regional Inclusion – Aspirational Districts improved health, education, and infrastructure indicators in 112 lagging districts.

    Women Empowerment – Eg- 45% women representation in PRIs

    Limitations and Challenges

    Rural-Urban Divide Persists – Urban per capita income is 2x rural.

    Only 24-25% of the population has any formal social protection.

    Poor Learning Outcomes

    50% of Class 5 students cannot read Class 2 text (ASER).

    50% of graduates are employable only (India Skills Report).

    Low Public Health Spending – Still around 1.9% of GDP, below the global average of 6%.

    Inclusion-Exclusion errors and Leakages in PDS.

    High Inequality – Top 10% hold 77% of national wealth (Oxfam).

    Capability Approach (Amartya Sen) by increasing Education and health spending to 6% and 2.5% of GDP respectively is needed for ‘Sabka Saath, Sabka Vikas.’

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    Land reforms in India aimed to eliminate feudal structures, secure tenancy rights, redistribute surplus land, and modernise agrarian relations.

    Components of land reforms

    Abolition of Intermediaries

    Tenancy Reforms

    Ceiling on Land Holdings

    Land Consolidation

    Factors behind successful implementation of land reforms in some parts of the country

    Strong Political Will and Ideological Commitment to land redistribution and tenancy reforms

    Kerala – Communist government

    West Bengal – Left Front

    Decentralised and proactive bureaucracy, especially in West Bengal, where Block Development Offices played a central role in implementing Operation Barga.

    Robust Panchayati Raj Institutions ensured identification of beneficiaries, resolution of disputes, and monitoring of redistribution.

    Social Movements and Mass Mobilisation led by Kisan Sabhas, Bhoodan–Gramdan, and left-oriented peasant unions created strong grassroots pressure.

    Clear and Unambiguous Land Legislation such as J&K’s Big Landed Estates Abolition Act, 1950 – faced fewer legal loopholes

    States where landlord dominance in Governance was weaker (Kerala, West Bengal) had less resistance and fewer litigations compared to states like Bihar or UP.

    Kerala’s high literacy enabled better awareness of legal rights and reduced manipulation by landlords.

    Strong Monitoring – Periodic reviews, political oversight, and public reporting in TN ensured transparency and discouraged corruption or collusion with landowners.

    Major Challenges

    Land Reforms is ‘state subject’ – Lack of political will and uniformity in implementation

    Legal loopholes – In Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madras there was no limit on the size of the lands that could be declared to be under the ‘personal cultivation’ of the zamindar

    Fragmented Landholdings – Average operational holding has fallen to 0.74 ha (NABARD), making consolidation challenging.

    Inadequate Institutional Capacity – Revenue departments face deficits in manpower, technology, and coordination.

    Despite legal provisions, women hold only 11-13% of operational holdings due to inheritance barriers.

    High Land Litigation – Over two-thirds of civil cases in lower courts involve land disputes

    Land reform 2.0 based on modernisation of records (DILRMP), redistribution of land and land leasing reforms is essential to realise the objective of ‘Doubling Farmers Income’.

    Environment

    Conservation Efforts

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    The Maldives, located southwest of India in the central Indian Ocean, sits astride critical Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCs) that carry a major share of global oil and trade flows.

    Geopolitical and Geostrategic Importance of Maldives for India

    Strategic Location on Global Trade Routes through which over 80% of India’s crude oil and global container traffic transit.

    Energy Security Corridor- positions near the Eight Degree Channel are vital for the free flow of energy from the Persian Gulf to Indian and East Asian markets.

    As part of India’s SAGAR vision, Maldives strengthens India’s maritime domain awareness (MDA) through coastal radar systems integrated with India’s Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR).

    Economic and Blue Economy Cooperation for trade connectivity and sustainable ocean management.

    Impact on India’s Maritime Security Amidst International Competition

    India’s partnership with Maldives enables real-time monitoring of sea lanes, joint patrols, and defense training, enhancing maritime security in the Arabian Sea-Central IOR belt.

    The Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and Chinese-funded infrastructure projects in Maldives (e.g., Sinamalé Bridge, port expansions) raise concerns of strategic encirclement (“String of Pearls”).

    Securing SLOCs Against Non-Traditional Threats like piracy, smuggling, terrorism, and illegal fishing.

    First-Responder Advantage- India’s humanitarian and disaster-relief operations (e.g., Operation NEER, COVID-19 aid) reinforce its role as the preferred security partner in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

    Impact on India’s Regional Stability Amidst International Competition

    Maintaining Balance of Power in the IOR- Maldives’ cooperation ensures that strategic outposts in the central Indian Ocean remain friendly to India and aligned with its Indo-Pacific vision.

    Shifts between pro-India and pro-China governments in Maldives (e.g., “India Out” campaigns) requires non-interference and developmental diplomacy to ensure long-term engagement.

    Regional Multilateralism and Cooperative Security through the Colombo Security Conclave and Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA).

    India’s investments in infrastructure, tourism, and climate adaptation projects foster goodwill, ensuring Maldives remains a stable democratic partner in an increasingly contested Indo-Pacific.

    Challenges

    India’s Panipat Syndrome – Reactive rather than proactive diplomacy

    Political Instability due to Chinese influence (Deep Pocket Diplomacy)

    India’s delivery deficit and Big Brother Syndrome

    Way Forward

    Expand joint naval patrols, intelligence sharing

    Gujaral Doctrine – non-intrusive, partnership-based approach

    Institutionalize Political and Strategic Dialogue- 2+2 Ministerial Dialogue

    Provide viable alternatives to Chinese Belt and Road projects via Neighbourhood First and SAGAR

    A stable, sovereign, and friendly Maldives is essential for India’s ambition of Net Security Provider in IOR.

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    The world order today is in ‘flux’ (M. K. Narayanan). In this context, “India is shaping up to be the trusted partner in a turbulent world.” (S. Jaishankar)

    China’s Dominance

    Political

    Alternative governance and development model of authoritarian capitalism

    Strategic assertion in South China Sea, Taiwan Strait, and Indian Ocean. Eg- boiling frog strategy

    Dual-use infrastructure- Eg- BRI ports and bases (Djibouti, Gwadar).

    Economic

    Parallel institutional ecosystem- Creation of AIIB, NDB, and BRI

    Complex interdependence- 18% of world GDP, major supplier in 70% of global supply chains.

    Debt Trap diplomacy through BRI loans and surplus-deficit strategies. Eg- Sri Lanka

    Weaponisation of supply chains – Eg- export restrictions on rare earths

    India’s Emerging Role as an Alternative to China

    (A) Geoeconomic Dimension – Supply Chain Diversification

    “China+1” Strategy-

    Global firms (Apple, Foxconn, Dell, Samsung) shifting manufacturing to India.

    India’s PLI Scheme attracted global investment in electronics, semiconductors, and solar.

    Recent FTA with UK

    Resilient Supply Chain Initiative by India, Japan, and Australia to reduce dependence on Chinese manufacturing.

    US-India Initiative on Critical and Emerging Technologies (iCET, 2023)- Cooperation in semiconductors, AI, quantum computing, and space.

    EU-India Trade and Technology Council (TTC, 2023)- Platform for technology, green energy, and digital infrastructure collaboration.

    (B) Strategic and Geopolitical Dimension

    Indo-Pacific Strategy-

    India is central to US-led Indo-Pacific vision ensuring a free and open Indo-Pacific.

    Participation in QUAD (India, US, Japan, Australia) to balance China’s maritime influence.

    Increasing defence trade and interoperability under COMCASA, BECA, LEMOA agreements.

    Critical Minerals Partnership (2022) to counter China’s monopoly in rare earth supply chains

    Infrastructure Connectivity- IMEC (India-Middle East-Europe Corridor, 2023) launched at G20 to provide an alternative to China’s BRI.

    (C) Multilateral and Institutional Cooperation

    India’s G20 Presidency (2023) strengthened its global credibility as a bridge between Global North and South.

    Western nations back India’s UNSC reform demand, recognizing its role in a multipolar world.

    ASEAN Countries and CARs as well as Russia support India’s role in ASEAN and SCO respectively as a counterbalance to China

    As the centre of gravity of world politics is shifting towards Indo-Pacific, India’s role is going to be critical in shaping 21st century great power dynamics.

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    The Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 38, 39, 42, and 47) mandate the State to ensure the health and well-being of all citizens. However, increasing marketisation of healthcare has led to inequality and exclusion, necessitating proactive state intervention.

    Adverse Impacts of Marketisation

    High OOPE: Nearly 47% of health expenditure in India is borne out-of-pocket (NHA 2023).

    Around 75% of private hospitals are located in urban areas, creating rural-urban disparities

    Profit Orientation: Commercial motives undermine equity and quality.

    Violation of Right to Health under Article 21 (Olga Tellis Case)

    Neglect of Preventive and Primary Care – Private sector prioritises curative and high-profit specialities

    Erosion of Equity and Ethics: Healthcare becomes a commodity

    Weak Regulation and Accountability leads to price inflation, quackery, and malpractice.

    Brain Drain from Public Sector due to better pay and infrastructure in private sector

    Role of the State

    As per Article 38 and 47, the State must promote public health and ensure equitable access.

    Ensuring Universal Health Coverage (UHC): State intervention is key to fulfilling SDG-3 (Good Health and Well-being) and ensuring healthcare equity.

    Correcting Market Failures: Government must act as a regulator and service provider, ensuring affordability, quality, and inclusivity.

    Measures to Enhance Reach of Public Healthcare at the Grassroots Level

    Upgrade Sub-Centres, PHCs, and CHCs under the Ayushman Bharat. Ensure diagnostic labs, maternity wards, and telemedicine facilities at PHC level.

    Raise public health spending to 2.5% of GDP (National Health Policy 2017). Prioritise spending on rural and preventive healthcare.

    Recruit and train ASHA, ANM, and community health officers with proper incentives and infrastructure.

    Implement transparent PPPs for tertiary healthcare in district hospitals (NITI Aayog)

    Expand Pradhan Mantri Jan Aushadhi Kendras for affordable drugs. Mandate prescription of generic medicines.

    Decentralised Health Governance – Empower Panchayati Raj Institutions and urban local bodies for health planning, awareness, and monitoring. (Kerala Model)

    Preventive Health – Strengthen immunisation, sanitation, and nutrition programmes (e.g., POSHAN Abhiyaan, Swachh Bharat).

    Promote health literacy through ASHA-led campaigns.

    Expand telemedicine (eSanjeevani) to connect rural PHCs with urban specialists.

    Integrate AYUSH systems with allopathic care at PHC level for holistic wellness.

    By strengthening primary care, the State can transform healthcare into a rights-based, inclusive, and sustainable system, achieving the goal of “Swastha Bharat, Samriddh Bharat.”

    Issues Related to Poverty and Hunger

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    The region of Central Asia is located in the heart of Eurasia and denoted as Heartland by Helford Mackinder. It connects Europe, West Asia, South Asia, and Russia.

    Significance of CARs in Regional and Global Geopolitics-

    Energy Hub- CARs hold 4% of global gas and 3% of oil reserves. Turkmenistan (gas), Kazakhstan (uranium, oil).

    Strategic Location- Land bridge between Europe, Russia, South Asia, and China, vital for Eurasian connectivity (BRI, INSTC, Ashgabat).

    Security Buffer- Acts as a buffer against terrorism and extremism from Afghanistan.

    Great Power Competition- Arena for China-Russia-US rivalry; China’s BRI investments exceed USD 60 billion.

    India’s Engagement-

    Diplomatic-

    Connect Central Asia Policy – based on 4 Cs-Commerce , Connectivity , Consular and Community.

    Institutionalized through India-Central Asia Summit (2022) and SCO membership (2017).

    Economic-

    Trade at USD 3 billion (2023);

    Focus on energy, IT, and pharma

    US$1 billion line of credit for development projects in infrastructure, IT, energy and agriculture in 2020.

    Joined Ashgabat Agreement (2018) and INSTC.

    Strategic-

    Cooperation on counterterrorism (SCO RATS)

    India operates Ayni Air Base (Tajikistan)

    Invests via ONGC Videsh in Kazakhstan.

    Challenges-

    Connectivity gaps due to lack of direct access (Pakistan barrier).

    China’s dominance under BRI and Russia’s influence in security.

    Instability in Afghanistan affecting corridors.

    Low trade volumes and implementation delays in projects like TAPI.

    US sanctions on Iran hinder Chabahar-INSTC route.

    Early finalization of FTA between India and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) and air corridors can help to realise India’s energy security, connectivity, and strategic depth.

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    Impact of poverty and malnutrition on Human Capital Formation

    World Bank (2024): India loses nearly 4% of GDP annually due to malnutrition-related productivity loss.

    Chronic malnutrition causes stunting and wasting among children, leading to weaker immunity and frequent illness.

    Impact on Cognitive Development – Poverty forces children into child labor or causes school dropouts. Malnourished children suffer from impaired brain development, lower IQ, and learning disabilities.

    High disease burden (anaemia, diarrhoea, TB) reduces life expectancy and working life span. Malnutrition contributes to 45% of child deaths (UNICEF, 2024).

    The International Labour Organization (ILO) notes that productivity losses due to undernutrition can reach up to 10% of lifetime earnings per individual.

    Women’s malnutrition (57% anaemic, NFHS-5) leads to poor maternal health and undernourished children.

    Expand NFSA and PMGKAY to include pulses, millets, and fortified foods, not just cereals.

    Steps to break the cycle

    Encourage local community kitchens and anganwadi-based feeding programs. Eg- TN Amma Canteens

    Strengthen Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) to ensure 1000-day nutrition support (pregnancy to age 2)

    Health and Sanitation Reforms

    Expand Ayushman Bharat – Health and Wellness Centres to deliver preventive and curative services.

    Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH): Accelerate Jal Jeevan Mission for clean drinking water.

    Expand MGNREGA and link with climate-resilient livelihoods (water conservation, afforestation).

    Women Empowerment by adopting best practices like Kerala’s Kudumbshree Model

    Integrated Policy Framework: Ensure coordination across ministries. Gati Shakti Mission Model

    Adopt data-driven local interventions under Aspirational Districts Programme to target high-burden regions.

    Adopt Brazil’s Bolsa Família conditional cash transfer scheme

    This can ensure whole of government and life-cycle approach to realise the vision of Viksit Bharat@2047

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