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GS Paper: GS3-16.Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology

  • Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV)

    The new chairman of the ISRO Dr S Somanath has indicated inauguration of indigenous new launch rockets, called the Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV).

    What is SSLV?

    • The SSLV is a small-lift launch vehicle being developed by the ISRO with payload capacity to deliver:
    1. 600 kg to Low Earth Orbit (500 km) or
    2. 300 kg to Sun-synchronous Orbit (500 km)
    • It would help launching small satellites, with the capability to support multiple orbital drop-offs.
    • In future a dedicated launch pad in Sriharikota called Small Satellite Launch Complex (SSLC) will be set up.
    • A new spaceport, under development, near Kulasekharapatnam in Tamil Nadu will handle SSLV launches when complete.
    • After entering the operational phase, the vehicle’s production and launch operations will be done by a consortium of Indian firms along with NewSpace India Limited (NSIL).

    Vehicle details

    (A) Dimensions

    • Height: 34 meters
    • Diameter: 2 meters
    • Mass: 120 tonnes

    (B) Propulsion

    • It will be a four stage launching vehicle.
    • The first three stages will use Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) based solid propellant, with a fourth terminal stage being a Velocity-Trimming Module (VTM).

    SSLV vs. PSLV: A comparison

    • The SSLV was developed with the aim of launching small satellites commercially at drastically reduced price and higher launch rate as compared to Polar SLV (PSLV).
    • The projected high launch rate relies on largely autonomous launch operation and on overall simple logistics.
    • To compare, a PSLV launch involves 600 officials while SSLV launch operations would be managed by a small team of about six people.
    • The launch readiness period of the SSLV is expected to be less than a week instead of months.
    • The SSLV can carry satellites weighing up to 500 kg to a low earth orbit while the tried and tested PSLV can launch satellites weighing in the range of 1000 kg.
    • The entire job will be done in a very short time and the cost will be only around Rs 30 crore for SSLV.

    Significance of SSLV

    • SSLV is perfectly suited for launching multiple microsatellites at a time and supports multiple orbital drop-offs.
    • The development and manufacture of the SSLV are expected to create greater synergy between the space sector and private Indian industries – a key aim of the space ministry.

    Back2Basics:

  • Gaganyaan and other new Missions in 2022

    After a rather muted 2021 in terms of satellite launches, Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) is gearing up for a number of missions in 2022 including the launch of the first unmanned mission of Gaganyaan.

    Gaganyaan Mission

    • Gaganyaan is crewed orbital spacecraft intended to be the formative spacecraft of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme (IHSP).
    • The IHSP was initiated in 2007 by ISRO to develop the technology needed to launch crewed orbital spacecraft into low Earth orbit.
    • The first uncrewed flight, named Gaganyaan 1, is scheduled to launch no earlier than June 2022 on a GSLV Mark III rocket.
    • ISRO had been working on related technologies and it performed a Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment and a Pad Abort Test for the mission.
    • If completed in meantime, India will become the fourth nation to conduct independent human spaceflight after the Russia, US and China.

    Details of the project

    • The spacecraft is being designed to carry three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with rendezvous and docking capability.
    • In its maiden crewed mission, this capsule will orbit the Earth at 400 km altitude for up to seven days with a two or three-person crew on board.
    • This Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) manufactured crew module had its first un-crewed experimental flight in 2014.
    • DRDO will provide support for critical human-centric systems and technologies like space-grade food, crew healthcare, radiation measurement and protection, parachutes for the safe recovery of the crew module and fire suppression system.

    Other missions this year

    • Earth Observation Satellites: EOS-4 and EOS-6
    • Flights for Crew Escape System of Gaganyaan
    • Chandrayaan-03
    • Aditya Ll
    • XpoSat

    New projects

    • Venus mission
    • DISHA –a twin aeronomy satellite mission
    • TRISHNA, an ISRO-CNES [Centre national d’études spatiales] mission

     

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  • Dhawan-1: India’s first privately developed Cryogenic Rocket

    Skyroot Aerospace successfully tested Dhawan-1 last month. It became the country’s first privately developed fully cryogenic rocket engine.

    Dhawan-1

    • The indigenous engine was developed using 3D printing with a superalloy.
    • It runs on two high-performance rocket propellants — liquid natural gas (LNG) and liquid oxygen (LoX).
    • This was after successfully designing and developing the solid propulsion rocket engine, the first private firm in the country to do so.

    Other projects by Skyroot

    • Skyroot is working simultaneously on different stages of both solid propulsion and liquid propulsion engines.
    • It is named after eminent scientists, like Kalam (Abdul Kalam) series for the former and Dhawan (Satish Dhawan).
    • The launch vehicles are named after Vikram Sarabhai.

     

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  • Shale and its potential in India

    Cairn Oil & Gas has announced that it is partnering US-based Halliburton to start shale exploration in the Lower Barmer Hill formation, Western Rajasthan.

    What is Shale oil?

    • Shale oil is an unconventional oil produced from oil shale rock fragments by pyrolysis, hydrogenation, or thermal dissolution.
    • These processes convert the organic matter within the rock (kerogen) into synthetic oil and gas.
    • The refined products can be used for the same purposes as those derived from crude oil.

     How does it differ from conventional crude oil?

    • The key difference between shale oil and conventional crude is that the former, also called ‘tight oil’, is found in smaller batches, and deeper than conventional crude deposits.
    • Its extraction requires creation of fractures in oil and gas rich shale to release hydrocarbons through a process called hydraulic fracking.

    What is fracking?

    • Fracking is the process of drilling down into the earth before a high-pressure water mixture is directed at the rock to release the gas inside.
    • Water, sand and chemicals are injected into the rock at high pressure which allows the gas to flow out to the head of the well.
    • The process can be carried out vertically or, more commonly, by drilling horizontally to the rock layer, which can create new pathways to release gas or used to extend existing channels.
    • The term fracking refers to how the rock is fractured apart by the high-pressure mixture.

    Shale production in the world

    • Russia and the US are among the largest shale oil producers in the world.
    • With a surge in shale oil production in the US, it has played a key role in turning the country from an importer of crude to a net exporter in 2019.

    Shale reserves in India

    • As per the US EIA 2015 report, India has got technically recoverable shale gas of 96 trillion cubic feet.
    • The recoverable reserves are identified in Cambay, Krishna – Godavari, Cauvery, Damodar Valley, Upper Assam, Pranahita – Godavari, Rajasthan and Vindhya Basins.
    • The ONGC has drilled the first exploratory shale gas well in Jambusar near Vadodara, Gujarat, in Cambay basin during October 2013.

    What are the prospects of shale oil exploration in India?

    • Currently, there is no large-scale commercial production of shale oil and gas in India.
    • Shale oil and gas exploration faces several challenges other than environmental concerns around massive water requirements for fracking and potential for ground water contamination.
    • State-owned ONGC had, in 2013, started exploration and, by the end of FY21, assessed shale oil and gas potential in 25 nomination blocks.
    • But it has reduced investments over the past few years after only getting limited success in shale exploration efforts.

     

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  • Katol L6 Chondrite Meteorite

    Last month, researchers from the Geological Survey of India collected some meteorite fragments near the town of Katol in Nagpur in 2012. Studying this, IIT Kgp researchers have unravelled the composition expected to be present in the Earth’s lower mantle which is at about 660 km deep.

    Katol L6

    • Initial studies revealed that the host rock was mainly composed of olivine, an olive-green mineral.
    • Olivine is the most abundant phase in our Earth’s upper mantle.
    • Our Earth is composed of different layers including the outer crust, followed by the mantle and then the inner core.

    Key findings: Presence of Bridgmanite

    • The study reported for the first time, presence of veins of the mineral bridgmanite, which is the most abundant mineral in the interior of the Earth, within the Katol L6 Chondrite meteorite.
    • Bridgmanite consists of magnesium, iron, calcium aluminium oxide and has a perovskite structure. It is the most volumetrically abundant mineral of the Earth’s interior.
    • It is present in the lower mantle (from 660 to 2700 km), and it is important to understand its formation mechanism to better comprehend the origin and evolution of planetary interiors.

    What is the hypothesis of moon-formation?

    The discovery of Bridgmanite in Katol L6 adds evidence to the Moon-forming giant impact hypothesis.

    • The Moon-forming giant impact hypothesis occurred nearly 4.5 billion years ago.
    • The Earth collided with a planet the size of Mars named Thela.
    • The force of this impact was so huge as to melt the Earth down from the surface to a depth of 750 km to 1,100 km.
    • The hypothesis goes that this caused the Earth to be bathed in a magma ocean, and the ejecta from the collision led to the formation of the Moon.

    Note: Earth was an ocean of magma in the past.  The heavier iron and nickel went to the core while the lighter silicates stayed in the mantle.

    Future prospect of the study

    • This finding could help investigations of high-pressure phase transformation mechanisms in the deep Earth.

    Back2Basics: Interior of Earth

    Earths Structure

    ​​The earth is made up of three different layers: the crust, the mantle and the core.

    The crust

    This is the outside layer of the earth and is made of solid rock, mostly basalt and granite. There are two types of crust; oceanic and continental. Oceanic crust is denser and thinner and mainly com​posed of basalt.  Continental crust is less dense, thicker, and mainly composed of granite.

    The mantle

    The mantle lies below the crust and is up to 2900 km thick.  It consists of hot, dense, iron and magnesium-rich solid rock. The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere, which is broken into plates, both large and small.

    The core

    The core is the centre of the earth and is made up of two parts: the liquid outer core and solid inner core. The outer core is made of nickel, iron and molten rock. Temperatures here can reach up to 50,000 C.

     

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  • Agni V vs China’s Hypersonic Missile

    Though inducted over three years ago, India’s foremost Agni 5 ballistic missile was tested for the first time after reports that China had tested a new hypersonic missile.

    What is the Agni 5 missile?

    • Agni 5 is India’s long-range surface-to-surface ballistic missile, which can hit a target with a precision that is 5,000 km
    • The nuclear-capable missile is India’s contender for the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM).
    • Its range puts almost the entire China within the missile’s target range.
    • Though the government has claimed that it has a maximum range of around 5,000 km, several reports suggest that it can hit targets as distant as 8,000 km.
    • The nuclear capable missile can carry a warhead of around 1,500 kg and has a launch weight of 50,000 kg, making it one of the most potent missiles in the country.

    Note: Officially an ICBM needs a missile to have a range of at least 5,500 km.

    History of Agni Missiles

    • India began testing the Agni series of missiles in 1989 with the first test for Agni 1, an Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile, with a range of around 1,000 km.
    • At that time only the US, the erstwhile Soviet Union, China, France and Israel, had IRBM technology.
    • Since then, DRDO labs have continued to work on it, bringing the latest available Agni 5 to its present capability.
    • In addition to the IRBM-capable nations, only North Korea and the UK have ICBM technology at the moment.

    Why is it important for India?

    • The success of AGNI missiles is in line with India’s stated policy to have ‘credible minimum deterrence’ that underpins the commitment to ‘No First Use’.
    • What makes Agni 5 agile is that it is a “canisterised” missile. It means that the missile can be launched from road and rail platforms, making it easier for it to be deployed and launched at a quicker pace.
    • The canisterisation also gives the missile a longer shelf life, protecting it from the harsher climatic conditions.
    • While India is among the handful of nations with ICBM capability.
    • The next generation of the missile, Agni VI, under development, is expected to have a range of around 8,000 km.

    What is a Hypersonic Glide Vehicle that China tested?

    • HGV is nuclear capable missile, which circled the earth before moving towards its target, missing it by two dozen miles.
    • It is launched by a rocket which moves in the Earth’s lower orbit, at more than five times to 25 times the speed of sound.
    • The vehicle is capable of carrying nuclear payloads, which gives the launching country the strategic capacity to attack almost any target across the world.

    How is HGV different from an ICBM?

    • A hypersonic glide vehicle orbits the earth at a lower height, and is manoeuvrable as compared to ICBM.
    • The ability to change track or target, mid-trajectory, along with the speed, makes them tougher to track and defend against.
    • The manoeuvrability provides them in-flight updates to attack a different target than originally planned.
    • They possess ability to fly at unpredictable trajectories, these missiles will hold extremely large areas at risk throughout much of their flights.

    Which countries have hypersonic technology?

    • Apart from China, the US and Russia are working on the technology.
    • France and India are working together for gaining the capability.

    Concerns about China developing such technology

    • China might have left the US behind in hypersonic capability.
    • It is being perceived as a Sputnik moment (first Russian space mission widely envied by the US).
    • A hypersonic attack could occur with very little warning time. The unpredictable trajectory would give them an advantage.

    Another concern: Increasing Proliferation

    • Globally the main concern is that once the technology is successfully established by even one country, it would lead to a larger race for the capability and its eventual proliferation.
    • The more that hypersonic missiles proliferate into the hands of additional nations, the more paths develop for crises.

     

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  • IAO Hanle: A promising astronomical observatory

    A new study shows that the Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO) located in Hanle is one of the emerging sites for infrared and optical astronomy studies.

    About IAO Hanle

    • The IAO, located in Hanle at Mount Saraswati near Leh in Ladakh, has one of the world’s highest located sites for optical, infrared and gamma-ray telescopes.
    • It was established in 2001 and is operated by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bangalore.
    • It is currently the ninth highest optical telescope in the world, situated at an elevation of 4,500 meters.

    Note: University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory (TAO) located in the Atacama desert of Chile is the highest at an elevation of 5,640 m.

    Major telescopes at Hanle include:

    1. Himalayan Chandra Telescope (An optical-infrared telescope named after India-born Nobel laureate Subrahmanyam Chandrasekhar)
    2. GROWTH-India Telescope (A robotic optical telescope)
    3. High Altitude Gamma Ray Telescope

    Distinct factors of IAO Hanle

    • IAO Hanle offers a clear view of space among all observatories globally.
    • This is due to its advantages of more clear nights, minimal light pollution, background aerosol concentration, extremely dry atmospheric condition and uninterrupted monsoon.
    • Hanle site is as dry as Atacama Desert in Chile and much drier than Devasthal and has around 270 clear nights in a year and is also one of the emerging sites for infrared and submillimetre optical astronomy.
    • This is because water vapor absorbs electromagnetic signals and reduces their strength.

     

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  • DRDO tests Akash Prime Missile

    The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has successfully tested a new version of Akash Surface to Air missile Akash Prime from the Integrated Test Range at Chandipur, Odisha.

    About Akash Missile System

    • Akash is a medium-range mobile surface-to-air missile (SAM) system.
    • It is developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and produced by Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL).
    • It can target aircraft up to 50–80 km away, at altitudes up to 18,000 m.
    • It has the capability to neutralise aerial targets like fighter jets, cruise missiles and air-to-surface missiles as well as ballistic missiles.
    • It is in operational service with the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force.

    Upgrade in Akash Prime

    • In comparison to the existing Akash System, Akash Prime is equipped with an indigenous active Radio Frequency (RF) seeker for improved accuracy.
    • Other improvements also ensure more reliable performance under low temperature environment at higher altitudes.

     

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  • IIT-B develops One-time Programmable Memory

    IIT Bombay researchers have developed a “memory technology” that can, in principle, revolutionise Indian industry and the many applications that need semiconductor chips, such as in the defence sector, automobiles and future aspirations in cell phone manufacturing.

    One-time Programmable Memory

    • Hard disks, flash memory, etc, are examples of memory technology.
    • There is also another form of memory called the one-time programmable memory (OTP) where the memory is written once, stored for a lifetime, and retrieved and used many times.
    • This finds varied uses, one of which is in correcting faulty chips that have been mass produced for specific applications.

    Its utility

    • For instance, think of a chip that helps read off the temperature.
    • Due to a manufacturing defect, the chip may read 100 degree Celsius as 101 degree Celsius.
    • This “offset” of 1 degree may be corrected by storing the error correction parameter in the OTP memory.
    • This is done uniquely for each chip and once stored, the memory corrects the chip’s output for its lifetime.
    • OTP memories are also used for other purposes, mainly three: chip identity, secure information storage and chip calibration for error correction.

    How does it work?

    • To store the correction value, the researchers used eight memory cells, each of which would store one “bit” (that is a value of zero or one).
    • Each of the memory cells consist of an ultrathin silicon dioxide layer which is 10-15 atomic layers thick.
    • This is deposited uniformly over a dinner plate–sized eight-inch silicon wafer to form millions of nanoscale capacitors.
    • The pristine silicon dioxide layer is insulating, passing a very low current [which in digital electronics is read as a “0”].
    • A nanoscale lightning is generated of 3.3 volts to blow the capacitor, leading to a short circuit that produced high current [this is a “1”].
    • Thus, the OTP memory remembers either the “0” state or “1” state through its lifetime.

    Benefits offered

    • The group has successfully demonstrated CMOS 180-nanometre–based, production-ready, eight-bit memory technology.
    • These include successful operation between minus 40 degrees C to 125 degrees C and reliability to ensure excess of 95% yield on eight-bit memories.

    Significance

    • A large fraction of manufactured chips may need to be discarded for faults that can be corrected using this technology.
    • This technology is the first indigenous semiconductor memory technology adoption to manufacturing at 180-nanometre node.
    • Thus, this is a major national milestone for semiconductor innovation.

     

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  • India scores 46th rank in the Global Innovation Index 2021

    India has climbed 2 spots and has been ranked 46th by the World Intellectual Property Organization in the Global Innovation Index 2021 rankings.

    Global Innovation Index

    • The Global Innovation Index (GII) is an annual ranking of countries by their capacity for, and success in, innovation.
    • It is published by Cornell University, INSEAD, and the World Intellectual Property Organization, in partnership with other organizations and institutions.
    • It is based on both subjective and objective data derived from several sources, including the International Telecommunication Union, the World Bank and the World Economic Forum.
    • The index was started in 2007 by INSEAD and World Business, a British magazine. It was created by Prof. Soumitra Dutta.

    Components of GII

    • The GII is computed by taking a simple average of the scores in two sub-indices, the Innovation Input Index and Innovation Output Index, which are composed of five and two pillars respectively.

    India’s performance

    • India has been on a rising trajectory, over the past several years in the Global Innovation Index (GII), from a rank of 81 in 2015 to 46 in 2021.
    • India attributed its improved performance due to the pivotal role played by the Department of Atomic Energy, the Department of Science and Technology, the Department of Biotechnology and the Department of Space.

    Global scenario

    • Switzerland topped the league table, followed by Sweden, the US and the UK.
    • Among Asian economies, South Korea jumped to the fifth position, up from 10 last year.
    • China was in the 12th position.

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