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GS Paper: GS1

  • Cabinet nod for Glasgow Climate Pledges

    India ratified pledges made by Prime Minister in Glasgow to accelerate the country’s reliance on renewable energy to power the economy and be effectively free from use of fossil fuels by 2070.

    Why discuss them?

    • The approved pledges were fewer than those PM committed to.

    What is NDC (Nationally Determined Commitments)?

    • NDCs are at the heart of the Paris Agreement and the achievement of these long-term goals.
    • They embody efforts by each country to reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.
    • The Paris Agreement (Article 4, paragraph 2) requires each Party to prepare, communicate and maintain successive NDCs that it intends to achieve.
    • Parties shall pursue domestic mitigation measures, with the aim of achieving the objectives of such contributions.
    • The agreement requests each country to outline and communicate their post-2020 climate actions, known as their NDCs.

    India’s NDC

    • India’s NDC, or nationally determined commitments, have been updated with these two promises, both of which are enhancements of existing targets, and would be submitted to the UN climate body.
    • The 2015 Paris Agreement requires every country to set self-determined climate targets which have to be progressively updated with more ambitious goals every few years.
    • India’s first NDC was submitted in 2015, just before the Paris Agreement was finalised.

    India’s original NDC contained three main targets for 2030:

    1. A 33 to 35 per cent reduction in emissions intensity (or emissions per unit of GDP) from 2005 levels
    2. At least 40 per cent of total electricity generation to come from non-fossil renewable sources
    3. An increase in forest cover to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent

    Commitment made at Glasgow

    • At the Glasgow meeting last year, Modi promised to strengthen India’s climate commitments.
    • He made five promises, and called it the ‘Panchamrit’, the nectar that Indians prepare using five ingredients.
    • Two of these were upward revision of existing targets, the ones that have been made official and put in the updated NDC. Accordingly,
    1. India will now reduce its emission intensity by at least 45 per cent, instead of just 33 to 35 per cent, from 2005 levels by 2030.
    2. Also, it would now ensure that at least 50 per cent of its total electricity generation, not just 40 per cent, would come from renewable sources by 2030.
    3. The forestry target has not been touched.

    India’s climate targets: Existing and New

    • PM had said that at least 500 GW of India’s installed electricity generation capacity in 2030 would be based on non-fossil fuel sources.
    • Also, he had promised that the country would ensure avoided emissions of at least one billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent between now and 2030.
    • These two promises have not been converted into official targets.
    • But these are closely linked with others, and any progress on official targets would get reflected in these goals as well.

    What about Net Zero?

    • Modi had also announced a net zero target for India for the year 2070.
    • Net zero is a situation in which a country’s greenhouse gas emissions are offset entirely, either by absorption of carbon dioxide.
    • This may be done through natural processes like photosynthesis in plants, or through physical removal of greenhouse gases using futuristic technologies.
    • But net zero is a long-term target and does not qualify to be included in the NDC which seeks five to 10 year climate targets from countries.

    India’s progress

    • The upward revision of the two climate targets — those relating to reductions in emissions intensity and proportion of non-fossil sources in electricity generation — do not come as a surprise.
    • India is on way to achieve its existing targets well ahead of the 2030 timeline.
    • India’s emissions intensity was 24 per cent lower than the 2005 levels in the year 2016 itself, the last year for which official numbers are available.
    • It is very likely that the 33 to 35 per cent reduction target has already been achieved, or is very close to being achieved.
    • A further reduction of 10-12 per cent from here, to meet the new target, does not appear too challenging, even though these reductions get progressively tougher to achieve.
    • The other target — having at least 40 per cent of electricity coming from non-fossil fuels — has officially been reached.

    Tricky Glasgow promises

    Two promises that Modi had made in Glasgow have not been converted into official targets:

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  • Har Ghar Tiranga Campaign

    The Centre is set to launch a large-scale campaign to encourage Indians to fly the National Fag at their homes to mark the 75th Independence Day under the Har Ghar Tiranga Campaign.

    Also, August 2 marks 146th birth anniversary of Pingali Venkayya, the designer of Pingali Venkayya.

    Har Ghar Tiranga

    • ‘Har Ghar Tiranga’ is a campaign under the aegis of Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav to encourage people to bring the Tiranga home and to hoist it to mark the 75th year of India’s independence.
    • The campaign aims to have citizens hoisting our National Flag in their homes between August 13 and 15.

    Why such move?

    • Our relationship with the flag has always been more formal and institutional than personal.
    • Bringing the flag home collectively as a nation in the 75th year of independence thus becomes a symbolic act of personal connection to the Tiranga.
    • The idea behind the initiative is to invoke the feeling of patriotism in the hearts of the people and to promote awareness about the National Flag.

    Story of our National Flag

    • On July 22, 1947, the Constituent Assembly adopted our National Flag.
    • The flag that was finally chosen underwent several changes since it was originally designed by Pingali Venkayya in 1923.
    • Venkayya was not just the architect of the flag but also a freedom fighter.
    • He was known as Jhanda Venkayya as he published a book in 1916 on 30 designs for the Indian flag.
    • August 2 marks his 146th birth anniversary and citizens across this country will now know more of his contributions in designing the flag that we have today.

    How this was made possible?

    • First, the Flag Code was changed to make the flag more accessible and thus give every Indian the unique opportunity to hoist the flag at their homes.
    • Subsequently, the government has taken various steps to ensure the supply of flags across the country.
    • Flags are now available in all post offices in the country.
    • State governments have tied up with various stakeholders for the supply of flags.
    • The flag will be available on the government’s e-market marketplace (GEM) portal, on e-commerce portals, and with various self-help groups (SHGs).

    What is the Flag Code of India?

    • The Flag Code of India is a set of laws, practices and conventions that apply to the display of the national flag of India.
    • The Code took effect from 26 January 2002 and superseded the “Flag Code-India” as it existed earlier.
    • It permits the unrestricted display of the tricolour, consistent with the honour and dignity of the flag.

    The Flag Code of India has been divided into three parts:-

    • First Part: General Description of the National Flag.
    • Second Part: Display of the National Flag by members of public, private Organisations & educational institutions etc.
    • Third Part: Display of National Flag by Union or State Governments and their organisations and agencies.

    Disposing of the national flag

    • A/c to the Flag Code, such paper flags are not to be discarded or thrown on the ground after the event.
    • Such flags are to be disposed of, in private, consistent with the dignity of the flag.

    Do you know?: Hoisting the national flag is a fundamental right

    • The bench headed by Chief Justice of India V. N. Khare said that under Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution of India, citizens had the fundamental right to fly the national flag on their premises throughout the year.
    • However, it provided that the premises do not undermine the dignity of the national flag.

    About Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act

    • The law, enacted on December 23, 1971, penalizes the desecration of or insult to Indian national symbols, such as the National Flag, the Constitution, the National Anthem, and the Indian map, as well as contempt of the Constitution of India.
    • Section 2 of the Act deals with insults to the Indian National Flag and the Constitution of India.

    Do you know?

    Article 51 ‘A’ contained in Part IV A i.e. Fundamental Duties asks:

    To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem in clause (a).

    Back2Basics: Story of our National Flag

    (1) Public display for the first time

    • Arguably the first national flag of India is said to have been hoisted on August 7, 1906, in Kolkata at the Parsee Bagan Square (Green Park).
    • It comprised three horizontal stripes of red, yellow and green, with Vande Mataram written in the middle.
    • Believed to have been designed by freedom activists Sachindra Prasad Bose and Hemchandra Kanungo, the red stripe on the flag had symbols of the sun and a crescent moon, and the green strip had eight half-open lotuses.

    (2) In Germany

    • In 1907, Madame Cama and her group of exiled revolutionaries hoisted an Indian flag in Germany in 1907 — this was the first Indian flag to be hoisted in a foreign land.

    (3) During the Home Rule Movement

    • In 1917, Dr Annie Besant and Lokmanya Tilak adopted a new flag as part of the Home Rule Movement.
    • It had five alternate red and four green horizontal stripes, and seven stars in the saptarishi configuration.
    • A white crescent and star occupied one top corner, and the other had Union Jack.

    (4) Final version by Pingali Venkayya

    • The design of the present-day Indian tricolour is largely attributed to Pingali Venkayya, an Indian freedom fighter.
    • He reportedly first met Mahatma Gandhi in South Africa during the second Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902), when he was posted there as part of the British Indian Army.
    • Years of research went into designing the national flag. In 1916, he even published a book with possible designs of Indian flags.
    • At the All India Congress Committee in Bezwada in 1921, Venkayya again met Gandhi and proposed a basic design of the flag, consisting of two red and green bands to symbolise the two major communities, Hindus and Muslims.

    (5) During Constituent Assembly

    • On July 22, 1947, when members of the Constituent Assembly of India, the first item on the agenda was reportedly a motion by Pandit Nehru, about adopting a national flag for free India.
    • It was proposed that “the National Flag of India shall be horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (Kesari), white and dark green in equal proportion.”
    • The white band was to have a wheel in navy blue (the charkha being replaced by the chakra), which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka.

     

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  • Parliamentary panel reviews Goa Civil Code

    A parliamentary panel has reviewed Goa’s uniform civil code, and some of its members feel that there are some peculiar and outdated provisions related to matrimony in it.

    What is Goa Civil Code?

    • The Goa Civil Code is a set of civil laws that governs all residents of the coastal State irrespective of their religion and ethnicity.
    • Citing various positives of the Goa Civil Code, Goa CM had urged that it could be a model for implementing the UCC across the country.

    Why in news?

    • GCC has come under focus amid a call for the implementation of a Uniform Civil Code (UCC) across the country.
    • The UCC features prominently on the present regime’s ideological agenda, and the party had made promises on it in the run-up to the Lok Sabha elections in 2014 and 2019.
    • This had an intimidating impact on certain sections of the population whose archaic provisions of personal laws were untouched for the sake of appeasement.

    Why Goa model is in news?

    • It was observed that a majority of the State’s people are “quite happy and content with it”.
    • It is a living example of peaceful implementation of UCC.
    • There were, however, some peculiar clauses in the law related to matrimony and division of property, which were outdated and not based on the principle of equality.

    What is a Uniform Civil Code?

    • A Uniform Civil Code (UCC) is one that would provide for one personal civil law for the entire country.
    • This would be applicable to all religious communities in their personal matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption etc.

    Basis for UCC

    • Article 44, one of the Directive Principles of the Constitution lays down that the state shall endeavour to secure a UCC for the citizens throughout the territory of India.
    • These, as defined in Article 37, are not justiciable (not enforceable by any court) but the principles laid down therein are fundamental in governance.

    UCC vs. Right to Freedom of Religion

    1. Article 25 lays down an individual’s fundamental right to religion
    2. Article 26(b) upholds the right of each religious denomination or any section thereof to “manage its own affairs in matters of religion”
    3. Article 29 defines the right to conserve distinctive culture

    Reasonable restrictions on the Freedom of Religion

    • An individual’s freedom of religion under Article 25 is subject to “public order, health, morality” and other provisions relating to FRs, but a group’s freedom under Article 26 has not been subjected to other FRs.
    • In the Constituent Assembly, there was division on the issue of putting UCC in the fundamental rights chapter. The matter was settled by a vote.
    • By a 5:4 majority, the fundamental rights sub-committee headed by Sardar Patel held that the provision was outside the scope of FRs and therefore the UCC was made less important.

    Minority Opinion in the Constituent Assembly

    • Some members sought to immunize Muslim Personal Law from state regulation.
    • Mohammed Ismail, who thrice tried unsuccessfully to get Muslim Personal Law exempted from Article 44, said a secular state should not interfere with the personal law of people.
    • B Pocker Saheb said he had received representations against a common civil code from various organizations, including Hindu organizations.
    • Hussain Imam questioned whether there could ever be uniformity of personal laws in a diverse country like India.
    • B R Ambedkar said “no government can use its provisions in a way that would force the Muslims to revolt”.
    • Alladi Krishnaswami, who was in favour of a UCC, conceded that it would be unwise to enact UCC ignoring strong opposition from any community.
    • Gender justice was never discussed in these debates.

    What about Personal Laws?

    • Citizens belonging to different religions and denominations follow different property and matrimonial laws which are an affront to the nation’s unity.
    • If the framers of the Constitution had intended to have a UCC, they would have given exclusive jurisdiction to Parliament in respect of personal laws, by including this subject in the Union List.
    • “Personal Laws” are mentioned in the Concurrent List.

    Various customary laws

    • All Hindus of the country are not governed by one law, nor are all Muslims or all Christians.
    • Muslims of Kashmir were governed by a customary law, which in many ways was at variance with Muslim Personal Law in the rest of the country and was, in fact, closer to Hindu law.
    • Even on registration of marriage among Muslims, laws differ from place to place.
    • In the Northeast, there are more than 200 tribes with their own varied customary laws.
    • The Constitution itself protects local customs in Nagaland. Similar protections are enjoyed by Meghalaya and Mizoram.
    • Even reformed Hindu law, in spite of codification, protects customary practices.

     Why need UCC?

    • UCC would provide equal status to all citizens
    • It would promote gender parity in Indian society.
    • UCC would accommodate the aspirations of the young population who imbibe liberal ideology.
    • Its implementation would thus support the national integration.

    Hurdles to UCC implementation

    • There are practical difficulties due to religious and cultural diversity in India.
    • The UCC is often perceived by the minorities as an encroachment of religious freedom.
    • It is often regarded as interference of the state in personal matters of the minorities.
    • Experts often argue that the time is not ripe for Indian society to embrace such UCC.

    These questions need to be addressed which are being completely ignored in the present din around UCC.

    1. Firstly, how can uniformity in personal laws are brought without disturbing the distinct essence of each and every component of the society.
    2. Secondly, what makes us believe that practices of one community are backward and unjust?
    3. Thirdly, has other uniformities been able to eradicate inequalities which diminish the status of our society as a whole?

    Way forward

    • It should be the duty of the religious intelligentia to educate the community about its rights and obligations based on modern liberal interpretations.
    • A good environment for the UCC must be prepared by the government by explaining the contents and significance of Article 44 taking all into confidence.
    • Social reforms are not overnight but gradual phenomenon. They are often vulnerable to media evils such as fake news and disinformation.
    • Social harmony and cultural fabric of our nation must be the priority.

     

    Also read this comprehensive article:

    [Sansad TV] Perspective: Uniform Civil Code

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  • UN declares Access to Clean, Healthy Environment as Universal Human Right

    Every person on the planet has the right to live in a clean, healthy environment, as declared United Nations (UN) in a historic resolution.

    Access to Clean, Healthy Environment

    • The resolution recognizes the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment as a human right essential for the full enjoyment of all human rights and, among others.
    • It calls upon States and international organizations to adopt policies and scale up efforts to ensure a clean, healthy and sustainable environment for all.
    • The landmark development demonstrates that the member states can unite in the collective fight against the triple planetary crisis of climate change, biodiversity loss and pollution.
    • The declaration sheds light on almost all the rights connected to the health of our environment.
    • The declaration adopted by over 160 UN member nations, including India, is not legally binding.

    Why such move?

    • This right was not included in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948.
    • So, this is a historic resolution that will change the very nature of international human rights law.
    • The resolution will help to reduce environmental injustices and protection gaps.
    • It can empower people, especially those in vulnerable situations, including environmental human rights defenders, children, youth, women and indigenous people.

    Landmark resolution after 50 years

    • Some 50 years ago, the United Nations Conference on the Environment in Stockholm concluded with a resolution placing environmental issues at the global forefront.
    • Today, over 176 countries have adopted environmental framework laws on the basis of it.
    • From a foothold in the 1972 Stockholm Declaration, these rights have been integrated into constitutions, national laws and regional agreements.
    • In October 2021, it was recognised by the UN Human Rights Council.

    What were other such developments?

    • July 28, 2010, the UN general assembly recognised the right to water and sanitation through its resolution.
    • It stated that clean drinking water and sanitation “are essential to the realisation of all human rights”.
    • In response to this, governments across the world have changed their laws and regulations related to water and sanitation.

    Issues over this declaration

    • The words’ ‘clean’, ‘healthy’ and ‘sustainable’ lack an internationally agreed definition.
    • The text fails to refer to the foundational principle of equity in international environmental law.
    • Nevertheless, this has given more power in the hands of environmental activists to question environmentally destructive actions and policies.

    Back2Basics: Right to Clean Environment in India

    • The right to life has been used in a diversified manner in India.
    • It includes, inter alia, the right to survive as a species, quality of life, the right to live with dignity and the right to livelihood.
    • In India, this has been expressly recognised as a constitutional right under Article 21.
    • It states: ‘No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedures established by law.’
    • The Supreme Court expanded this negative right in two ways.
    1. Firstly, any law affecting personal liberty should be reasonable, fair and just.
    2. Secondly, the Court recognized several unarticulated liberties that were implied by article 21.
    • It is by this second method that the Supreme Court interpreted the right to life and personal liberty to include the right to a clean environment.

     

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  • Replacement Level Fertility achieved in India

    India has achieved replacement level fertility, with 31 States and UTs reaching a Total Fertility Rate (an average number of children per woman) of 2.1 or less, Union Minister of State for Health and Family Welfare has informed Parliament.

    What is Replacement Level Fertility?

    • Replacement level fertility is the level of fertility at which a population exactly replaces itself from one generation to the next.
    • In simpler terms, it denotes the fertility number required to maintain the same population number of a country over a given period of time.
    • In developed countries, replacement level fertility can be taken as requiring an average of 2.1 children per woman.
    • In countries with high infant and child mortality rates, however, the average number of births may need to be much higher.
    • RLF will lead to zero population growth only if mortality rates remain constant and migration has no effect.

    Benefits of achieving RLF

    • RLF helps ensure greater food security.
    • The reduced demand for food would in turn lessen agri- culture’s impact on the environment.
    • It would also likely lead to economic benefits through a “demographic dividend.”
    • Finally, achieving replacement level fertility would yield significant social benefits―especially for women.

    How did India achieve this?

    • Between 2012 and 2020, the country added more than 1.5 crore additional users for modern contraceptives, thereby increasing their use substantially.
    • India has witnessed a paradigm shift from the concept of population control to population stabilisation to interventions being embedded toward ensuring harmony of continuum care.

    Way forward

    • Although India has achieved replacement level fertility, there is still a significant population in the reproductive age group that must remain at the centre of our intervention efforts.
    • India’s focus has traditionally been on the supply side, the providers and delivery systems but now it’s time to focus on the demand side which includes family, community and society.
    • Significant change is possible with this focus, instead of an incremental change.

     

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  • Who was Raja Ravi Varma?

    Ahead of the 175th birth anniversary fete of the legendary artist Raja Ravi Varma, erstwhile royal family of Kilimanoor has urged the Union government to posthumously confer the Bharat Ratna, the country’s highest civilian award, on him.

    Raja Ravi Varma

    • Raja Ravi Varma was born in April 1848 in Kilimanoor, Kerala, to a family which was very close to the royals of Travancore.
    • Often referred to as the father of modern Indian art, he is widely known for his realistic portrayal of Indian gods and goddesses.
    • While he majorly painted for the royalty, he is also credited for taking art to the masses with his prints and oleographs.
    • At a young age, he would draw animals and everyday scenes on the walls in indigenous colours made from natural materials such as leaves, flowers and soil.
    • His uncle, Raja Raja Varma, noticed this and encouraged his talent.
    • Patronised by Ayilyam Thirunal, the then ruler of Travancore, he learnt watercolour painting from the royal painter Ramaswamy Naidu, and later trained in oil painting from Dutch artist Theodore Jensen.

    How he become an artist of the royals?

    • Varma became a much sought-after artist for the aristocrats and was commissioned several portraits in late 19th century.
    • Arguably, at one point, he became so popular that the Kilimanoor Palace in Kerala opened a post office due to the sheer number of painting requests that would come in for him.
    • He travelled across India extensively, for work and inspiration.

    Fame as a notable painter

    • Following a portrait of Maharaja Sayajirao of Baroda, he has commissioned 14 Puranic paintings for the Durbar Hall of the new Lakshmi Vilas Palace at Baroda.
    • Depicting Indian culture, Varma borrowed from episodes of Mahabharata and Ramayana for the same.
    • He also received patronage from numerous other rulers, including the Maharaja of Mysore and Maharaja of Udaipur.
    • As his popularity soared, the artist won an award for an exhibition of his paintings at Vienna in 1873.
    • He was also awarded three gold medals at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893.

    Nature of his artforms

    • Much of his celebrated art also borrows heavily from Indian mythology.
    • In fact, he is often credited with defining the images of Indian gods and goddesses through his relatable and more realistic portrayals often painted with humans as models.
    • The depictions include Lakshmi as the goddess of wealth, Saraswati as the goddess of knowledge and wisdom, and Lord Vishnu with his consorts, Maya and Lakshmi.

    How he took Indian art to the masses?

    • Raja Ravi Varma aspired to take his art to the masses and the intent led him to open a Lithographic Press in Bombay in 1894.
    • The idea, reportedly, came from Sir T Madhava Rao, former Dewan of Travancore and later Baroda, in a letter where he pointed out to Varma that since it was impossible for him to meet the large demand for his work, it would be ideal for him to send some of his select works to Europe and have them produced as oleographs.
    • Varma, instead, chose to establish a printing press of his own.
    • The first picture printed at Varma’s press was reportedly The Birth of Shakuntala, followed by numerous mythological figures and saints such as Adi Shankaracharya.

    Major works

    • It is believed that he had made around 7,000 paintings before his death at the age of 58.
    • But only one painting is now left in ‘Chithrashala,’ the artist’s studio at Kilimanoor Palace — an unfinished portrait of ‘Parsi lady’ which was his last work.
    • Some of his popular works include ‘Lady in the Moonlight’, ‘Nair Lady Adorning Her Hair’, ‘Malabar Lady with Violin’, ‘Lady with Swarbat’, and ‘Maharashtrian Lady with Fruits’.

    Try this PYQ:

     

    There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?

    (a) Bagh caves

    (b) Ellora caves

    (c) Lomas Rishi cave

    (d) Nasik caves

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”6l9gnsan2c” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

    Back2Basics: Bharat Ratna

    • Bharat Ratna – ‘Jewel of India’ is the highest civilian award of the country.
    • It is conferred for exceptional Service to the nation in various fields such as Science arts, literature and recognition of public service of the highest order.
    • The award can be granted posthumously and since its establishment, seven awards were granted posthumously.
    • The award was established by formal President of India Rajendra Prasad on 2nd January 1954.
    • The concept of awarding this award posthumously was not there in the original statute declared in January 1954.
    • Provision to award posthumously was finally added in January 1966 statute of this prestigious award.
    • The medallion is cast in Bronze.
    • The medallion is designed like the leaf of a pipal tree with a sunburst in the centre and Bharat Ratna is engraved underneath it.

     

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  • Tribal Revolts President Murmu invoked in her inaugural speech

    Addressing the nation after being sworn in, President Murmu invoked four tribal revolutions that she said had strengthened tribal contribution to the freedom struggle.

    [1] Santhal revolution

    • On June 30, 1855, over 10,000 Santhals were mobilised by their leaders — Kanho Murmu, Chand Murmu, Bhairab Murmu and Sidho Murmu – to revolt against the East India Company over oppression by revenue officials, zamindars, and corrupt moneylenders.
    • The landmark event in tribal history, referred to as Santhal Hul, took place in Bhognadih village in present-day Jharkhand.
    • Soon after their open rebellion, Santhals took to arms to resist imposition of East India Company laws.
    • The seeds of the protracted rebellion, however, were sown in 1832 where the East India Company created Damin-i-koh region in the forested belt of Rajmahal hills, and invited the Santhals to settle there.
    • Over the years, Santhals found themselves at the receiving end of exploitative practices aided by the British.
    • After the rebellion broke out in 1855, both sides continued clashing till the uprising was crushed in 1856.
    • The British defeated the Santhals using modern firearms and war elephants in decisive action in which both Sidho and Kanho died.

    [2] Paika rebellion

    • In several recent descriptions, the 1817 Paika Rebellion in Odisha’s Khurda is referred to as the “original” first war of Indian Independence.
    • That year, the Paikas – a class of military retainers traditionally recruited by the kings of Odisha – revolted against the British colonial rulers mainly over being dispossessed of their land holdings.
    • In the run-up to the revolt, the British had dethroned and exiled the Khurda king in 1803, and then started introducing new revenue settlements.
    • For Paikas, who were into rendering martial services in return for hereditary rent-free land (nish-kar jagirs) and titles, this disruption meant losing both their estates and social standing.
    • The trigger for the revolt came as some 400 Kondhs descended from the Ghumusar area to rise against the British.
    • Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar Mohapatra Bharamarbar Rai, the highest-ranking military general of the banished Khurda king, led an army of Paikas to join the uprising of the Kondhs.
    • The Paikas set fire to government buildings in Banapur, killed policemen and looted the treasury and the British salt agent’s ship docked on the Chilika.
    • They then proceeded to Khurda and killed several British officials.
    • Over the next few months, the Paikas fought bloody battles at several places, but the colonial army gradually crushed the revolt.
    • Bakshi Jagabandhu escaped to the jungles, and stayed out of reach of the British until 1825, when he finally surrendered under negotiated terms.

    [3] Kol revolt

    • The Kols, tribal people from the Chhota Nagpur area, rose in revolt against the British in 1831.
    • The trigger here too was the gradual takeover of tribal land and property by non-tribal settlers who were aided by new land laws.
    • The simmering discontent over the economic exploitation of the original inhabitants led to an uprising led by Buddhu Bhagat, Joa Bhagat and Madara Mahato among others.
    • The Kols were joined by other tribes like the Hos, Mundas and Oraons.
    • The tribals fought with traditional weapons taking the battle to colonial forces who finally overpowered them with modern weaponry.
    • The uprising, which spread to areas like Ranchi, Hazaribagh, Palamau, and Manbhum and continued for almost two years before being snuffed out, mainly targeted colonial officials and private money-lenders.

    [4] Bhil uprising

    • After the British intruded into the Bhil territory in Maharashtra’s Khandesh region, the tribals pushed back fearing exploitation under the new regime in 1818.
    • The revolt was led by their leader, Sewaram and was brutally crushed using the British military might.
    • This uprising again erupted in 1825 as the Bhils sought to take advantage of reverses being suffered by the British in the first Anglo-Burmese war.

    Also read:

    Important Rebellions and Peasant Movements

     

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  • [pib] Anushilan Samiti

    Union Education and Skill Development Minister has urged NCERT and the Education fraternity to include enough information about Anushilan Samiti, especially in the upcoming National Curriculum Framework

    Anushilan Samiti

    • Anushilan Samiti was an Indian fitness club, which was actually used as an underground society for anti-British revolutionaries.
    • It was founded by Satish Chandra Pramatha Mitra, Aurobindo Ghose and Sarala Devi.
    • In the first quarter of the 20th century it supported revolutionary violence as the means for ending British rule in India.
    • The organisation arose from a conglomeration of local youth groups and gyms (akhara) in Bengal in 1902.
    • It had two prominent, somewhat independent, arms in East and West Bengal, Dhaka Anushilan Samiti (centred in Dhaka), and the Jugantar group (centred in Calcutta).
    • It challenged British rule in India by engaging in militant nationalism, including bombings, assassinations, and politically motivated violence.

    Revolutionary activities

    • The Samiti collaborated with other revolutionary organisations in India and abroad.
    • It was led by the nationalists Aurobindo Ghosh and his brother Barindra Ghosh, influenced by philosophies like Italian Nationalism, and the Pan-Asianism of Kakuzo Okakura.
    • The Samiti was involved in a number of noted incidents of revolutionary attacks against British interests and administration in India, including early attempts to assassinate British Raj officials.
    • These were followed by the 1912 attempt on the life of the Viceroy of India, and the Seditious conspiracy during World War I, led by Rash Behari Bose and Jatindranath Mukherjee respectively.

    Defiance from militant nationalism

    • The organisation moved away from its philosophy of violence in the 1920s due to the influence of the Indian National Congress and the Gandhian non-violent movement.
    • A section of the group, notably those associated with Sachindranath Sanyal, remained active in the revolutionary movement, founding the Hindustan Republican Association in north India.
    • A number of Congress leaders from Bengal, especially Subhash Chandra Bose, were accused by the British Government of having links with the organisation during this time.
    • The Samiti’s violent and radical philosophy revived in the 1930s, when it was involved in the Kakori conspiracy, the Chittagong armoury raid, and other actions against the administration in British-occupied India.

    Other personalities associated with Anushilan Samiti

    • Legends like, Deshabandhu Chittaranjan Das, Surendranath Tagore, Jatindranath Banerjee, Bagha Jatin were associated with Anushilan Samiti.
    • Dr Hedgewar who established the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) was also an alumnus of the Samity.

     

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  • Who were Raja Serfoji and Sivaji?

    A 19th-century painting of Raja Serfoji and his son Sivaji, which was stolen from Saraswathi Mahal, Thanjavur, a few years ago has been traced to the Peabody Essex Museum, Massachusetts, in the US.

    Who was Raja Serfoji?

    • For long, the rulers of Thanjavur had been devoid of absolute power.
    • Serfoji, placed by the British on the throne over his stepbrother Amar Singh, died in 1832.
    • His only son Sivaji ruled until 1855.
    • However, he had no male successor.
    • Thanjavur became a casualty of Lord Dalhousie’s infamous ‘Doctrine of Lapse’, and it got absorbed into British-ruled Indian provinces.
    • The painting, which has Raja Serfoji and his young son, according to some historians, was probably painted between 1822 and 1827 and kept in the Saraswathi Mahal.

    Back2Basics: Doctrine of Lapse

    • Between 1848 and 1856, Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India, devised the Doctrine of Lapse as an annexation policy.
    • It was an idea to annex those states which have no heir.
    • They lose the right of ruling, and it will not be reverted by the adoption of a child.
    • It was one of the key components that added to the 1857 revolt.

    Features of the doctrine

    • Any princely state or any territory under the direct influence of the British, as a vassal state under the British Subsidiary System, would inevitably be annexed if the ruler was either “manifestly incompetent or died without a direct heir”.
    • It ousted the age-old right of an Indian ruler without an heir to select a successor.
    • Additionally, the British decided whether potential rulers were competent enough or not.

    Annexations made under this policy

    Annexation           Year

    Satara                1848

    Jaitpur                1849

    Sambalpur            1849

    Baghat               1850

    Udaipur              1852

    Jhansi                 1853

    Nagpur               1854

     

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  • Heat Waves across the Europe

    The UK posted its highest temperature ever recorded — crossing 40°C.  Parts of France, Spain and Portugal recorded temperatures between 42 and 46 degrees.

    Why in news?

    • Dozens of towns and regions across Europe reeled under what has been described as a “heat apocalypse”, which has caused widespread devastation this year.
    • Wildfires caused by a combination of extreme heat and dry weather have destroyed 19,000 hectares of forest in southwestern France.

    What is a Heatwave and when is it declared?

    • Heatwaves occur over India between March and June.
    • IMD declares a heatwave event when the maximum (day) temperature for a location in the plains crosses 40 degrees Celsius.
    • Over the hills, the threshold temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.

    How are they formed?

    • Heatwaves form when high pressure aloft (3,000–7,600 metres) strengthens and remains over a region for several days up to several weeks.
    • This is common in summer (in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres) as the jet stream ‘follows the sun’.
    • On the equator side of the jet stream, in the upper layers of the atmosphere, is the high pressure area.
    • Summertime weather patterns are generally slower to change than in winter. As a result, this upper level high pressure also moves slowly.
    • Under high pressure, the air subsides (sinks) toward the surface, warming and drying adiabatically, inhibiting convection and preventing the formation of clouds.
    • Reduction of clouds increases shortwave radiation reaching the surface.
    • A low pressure at the surface leads to surface wind from lower latitudes that brings warm air, enhancing the warming.
    • Alternatively, the surface winds could blow from the hot continental interior towards the coastal zone, leading to heat waves.

    Following criteria are used to declare a heatwave:

    To declare heatwave, the below criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.

    a) Based on Departure from Normal

    • Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
    • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C

    b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)

    • Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C
    • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C

    How long can a heatwave spell last?

    • A heatwave spell generally lasts for a minimum of four days.
    • On some occasions, it can extend up to seven or ten days.

    Impact of Heat Waves

    • Heat Strokes: The very high temperatures or humid conditions pose an elevated risk of heat stroke or heat exhaustion.
    • Healthcare crisis: Effects from extreme heat are also associated with increased hospitalisations and emergency room visits, increased deaths from cardio-respiratory and other diseases, mental health issues, adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, etc.
    • Productivity loss: Extreme heat also lessens worker productivity, especially among the more than 1 billion workers who are exposed to high heat on a regular basis.
    • Risk of Wildfires: The heat domes act as fuel to wildfires, which destroys a lot of land area every year in countries like the US.
    • Prevents Cloud Formation: The condition also prevents clouds from forming, allowing for more radiation from the sun to hit the ground.
    • Effect on Vegetation: The trapping of heat can also damage crops, dry out vegetation and result in
    • Increased Energy Demands: The sweltering heat wave also leads to rise in energy demand, especially electricity, leading to pushing up rates.
    • Power Related Issues: Heat waves are often high mortality disasters.
    • Infrastructure failure: Avoiding heat-related disasters depends on the resilience of the electrical grid, which can fail if electricity demand due to air conditioning use exceeds supply.

    What is behind the extreme heat waves in Europe?

    Ans. Climate change, but exactly how

    • Scientists are near-unanimous that the heat waves are a result of climate change caused by human activity.
    • Global temperatures have already risen by more than 1°C , and studies in the UK had shown that a one degree rise in temperature raises the probability of the country witnessing 40°C by ten times.
    • The rising global temperature, which this year led to deviations above the normal by as much as 15 degrees in Antarctica, and by more than 3 degrees in the north pole.

    Major factor: Changes in old wind patterns

    • In the case of the US, the record temperatures are being linked to changes in the jet stream — a narrow band of westerly air currents that circulate several km above the earth’s surface.
    • While a conventionally strong jet stream would bring cooler air from the northern Atlantic, in recent years the jet stream has weakened and split into two.
    • This has led to intense and more frequent heat waves over parts of the American continent.

     

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