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GS Paper: GS1

  • What are Heatwaves?

    India is gripped in the wrath of a long spell of heatwaves that too in the early month of April.

    What is a Heatwave and when is it declared?

    • Heatwaves occur over India between March and June.
    • IMD declares a heatwave event when the maximum (day) temperature for a location in the plains crosses 40 degrees Celsius.
    • Over the hills, the threshold temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.

    How are they formed?

    • Heatwaves form when high pressure aloft (3,000–7,600 metres) strengthens and remains over a region for several days up to several weeks.
    • This is common in summer (in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres) as the jet stream ‘follows the sun’.
    • On the equator side of the jet stream, in the upper layers of the atmosphere, is the high pressure area.
    • Summertime weather patterns are generally slower to change than in winter. As a result, this upper level high pressure also moves slowly.
    • Under high pressure, the air subsides (sinks) toward the surface, warming and drying adiabatically, inhibiting convection and preventing the formation of clouds.
    • Reduction of clouds increases shortwave radiation reaching the surface.
    • A low pressure at the surface leads to surface wind from lower latitudes that brings warm air, enhancing the warming.
    • Alternatively, the surface winds could blow from the hot continental interior towards the coastal zone, leading to heat waves.

    Following criteria are used to declare heatwave:

    To declare heatwave, the below criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.

    1. a) Based on Departure from Normal
    • Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
    • Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C
    1. b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)
    • Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≄ 45°C
    • Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≄47°C

    How long can a heatwave spell last?

    • A heatwave spell generally lasts for a minimum of four days. On some occasions, it can extend up to seven or ten days.
    • The longest recorded heatwave spell, in recent years, was between 18 and 31 May 2015.

    Impact of Heat Waves:

    Heat Strokes: The very high temperatures or humid conditions pose an elevated risk of heat stroke or heat exhaustion.

    Older people and people with chronic illness such as heart disease, respiratory disease, and diabetes are more susceptible to heatstroke, as the body’s ability to regulate heat deteriorates with age.

    Increased Healthcare Costs: Effects from extreme heat are also associated with increased hospitalisations and emergency room visits, increased deaths from cardio-respiratory and other diseases, mental health issues, adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, etc.

    Lessens Workers’ Productivity: Extreme heat also lessens worker productivity, especially among the more than 1 billion workers who are exposed to high heat on a regular basis. These workers often report reduced work output due to heat stress.

    Risk of Wildfires: The heat domes act as fuel to wildfires, which destroys a lot of land area every year in countries like the US.

    Prevents Cloud Formation: The condition also prevents clouds from forming, allowing for more radiation from the sun to hit the ground.

    Effect on Vegetation: The trapping of heat can also damage crops, dry out vegetation and result in droughts.

    Increased Energy Demands: The sweltering heat wave also leads to rise in energy demand, especially electricity, leading to pushing up rates.

    Power Related Issues: Heat waves are often high mortality disasters.

    Avoiding heat-related disasters depends on the resilience of the electrical grid, which can fail if electricity demand due to air conditioning use exceeds supply.

    As a result, there is the double risk of infrastructure failure and health impacts.

    • Initiatives Taken:
      • Global:
        • Global forums dealing with climate change issues—such as the World Health Organization, World Economic Forum, First Global Forum on Heat and Health, and the Global Forum for Environment-OECD—also focus on heat waves by investing in research on health risks of extreme heat, climate and weather information, advice on surviving heat waves, partnerships and capacity building, and communications and outreach.
      • Indian:
        • The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has issued guidelines on dealing with heatwaves.
          • However, India does not recognise heatwaves as a disasterunder its Disaster Management Act (2005).

    Way Forward

    • Adopting A More Sensitive Approach: The impact of such excessive heat needs to be understood from the point of view of common people — daily labourers; farmers; traders; fishermen etc.
      • Beyond numbers and graphs that capture the impact of the climate crisis, the human experience of living in oppressive heat needs to be understood by policymakers and measures should be taken accordingly.
    • Cooling Shelters: The government should come out with a policy to deal with the suffering and disability caused by heat extremes in different parts of the country.
      • Water kiosks, staggered outdoor work hours, cool roofs for buildings and homes are certain things that should be put in place immediately.
      • A number of emergency cooling shelters can be opened so that people without domestic air conditioning units can escape the heat.
        • Portable air-conditioning units, along with fans and even ice are also useful.
    • Passive Cooling to Reduce Urban Heat Islands: Passive cooling technology, a widely-used strategy to create naturally ventilated buildings, can be a vital alternative to address the urban heat island for residential and commercial buildings.
      • The IPCC report cites ancient Indian building designs that have used this technology, which could be adapted to modern facilities in the context of global warming.
    • Action Plans Similar to Ahmedabad: As per the IPCC Report, Ahmedabad has shown the way to combat heat extremes by heat-proofing buildings.
      • After the heat action plan was implemented in 2013 in Ahmedabad, heat-related mortality reduced by 30% to 40% over the years. Similar plans like that of Ahmedabad can be implemented in vulnerable regions.
    • Replacing Dark Roofs: A big reason that cities are so much hotter than rural areas is that they are covered by dark roofs, roads and parking lots that absorb and retain heat.
      • One of the long term solutions can be replacing the dark surfaces with lighter and more reflective materials; it will result in a comparatively cooler environment.

     

     

  • Understanding the Olga Tellis Judgment

    A 37-year-old Constitution Bench judgment of the Supreme Court which held that pavement dwellers are different from trespassers. This may become a game-changer in the Jahangirpuri case.

    What is the Olga Tellis judgment?

    • The judgment, Olga Tellis vs. Bombay Municipal Corporation, was given in 1985 by a five-judge Bench led by then Chief Justice of India Y.V. Chandrachud (F/O Justice D.Y Chandrachud).
    • It is agreed that pavement dwellers do occupy public spaces in an unauthorized manner.

    Key takeaways of the Judgment

    • Opportunity to depart: The court maintained they should be given a chance to be heard and a reasonable opportunity to depart before force is used to expel them.
    • No use of force: The Supreme Court reasoned that eviction using unreasonable force, without giving them a chance to explain is unconstitutional.
    • Right to life: Pavement dwellers, too, have a right to life and dignity. The right to life included the right to livelihood. They earn a meagre livelihood by living and working on the footpaths.
    • No misuse of powers of eviction: A welfare state and its authorities should not use its powers of eviction as a means to deprive pavement dwellers of their livelihood.

    What led to the judgment?

    • Sometime in 1981, the State of Maharashtra and the Bombay Municipal Corporation decided that pavement and slum dwellers in Bombay city should be evicted and “deported to their respective places of origin or places outside the city of Bombay.”
    • Some demolitions were carried out before the case was brought to the Bombay High Court by pavement dwellers, residents of slums across the city, NGOs and journalists.
    • While they conceded that they did not have “any fundamental right to put up huts on pavements or public roads”, the case came up before the Supreme Court on larger questions of law.

    What were the questions discussed before the Supreme Court?

    • One of the main questions was whether eviction of a pavement dweller would amount to depriving him/her of their livelihood guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution.
    • The Article mandates that “no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty EXCEPT according to procedure established by law.”
    • The Constitution Bench was also asked to determine if provisions in the Bombay Municipal Corporation Act, 1888, allowing the removal of encroachments without prior notice, were arbitrary and unreasonable.
    • The Supreme Court also decided to examine the question whether it was constitutionally impermissible to characterise pavement dwellers as trespassers.

    What was the State government’s defence?

    • The State government and the corporation countered that pavement dwellers should be estopped (estoppel is a judicial device whereby a court may prevent or “estop” a person from making assertions.
    • Estoppel may prevent someone from bringing a particular claim from contending that the shacks constructed by them on the pavements cannot be demolished because of their right to livelihood.
    • They cannot claim any fundamental right to encroach and put up huts on pavements or public roads over which the public has a ‘right of way.’

    How did the Supreme Court rule?

    • The Bench threw out the government’s argument of estoppel, saying “there can be no estoppel against the Constitution.”
    • The court held that the right to life of pavement dwellers were at stake here.
    • The right to livelihood was an “integral component” of the right to life. They can come to court to assert their right.
    • If the right to livelihood is not treated as a part of the constitutional right to live, the easiest way of depriving a person of his right to life would be to deprive him of his means of livelihood to the point of abrogation.
    • Any aggrieved person can challenge the deprivation as offending the right to life.
    • Removal of encroachments without prior notice was arbitrary; the court held that such powers are designed to operate as an “exception” and not the “general rule.”
    • The procedure of eviction should lean in favour of procedural safeguards which follow the natural principles of justice like giving the other side an opportunity to be heard.
    • Finally, the court emphatically objected to authorities treating pavement dwellers as mere trespassers.
    • The encroachment committed are involuntary acts in the sense that those acts are compelled by inevitable circumstances and are not guided by choice.

    Way ahead

    • It is not a free choice to exercise as to whether to commit an encroachment and if so, where.
    • Trespassers should not be evicted by using force greater than what is reasonable and appropriate.
    • He/she should be asked and given a reasonable opportunity to depart before force is used to expel him.

     

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  • Palli in Jammu becomes India’s First Carbon-Neutral Panchayat

    Palli village in Samba district of Jammu and Kashmir has become the first panchayat in the country to become carbon-neutral, fully powered by solar energy.

    Various feats achieved

    • All its records have been digitised and the benefits of all the Central schemes are available in this village around 17 km from Jammu.
    • Palli village, with its enthusiastic and dedicated elected representatives full of dreams, has shown how to implement the Glasgow pledge (Panchamrita) made by PM Modi.
    • It has set an example of the slogan Sabka Prayas (everyone’s efforts).

    What is Carbon Neutrality?

    • Carbon neutrality refers to achieving net-zero carbon dioxide emissions or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference.
    • This can be done by balancing emissions of carbon dioxide with its removal (often through carbon offsetting) or by eliminating emissions from society.
    •  It is used in the context of carbon dioxide-releasing processes associated with transportation, energy production, agriculture, and industry.
    •  The term carbon neutral also includes other greenhouse gases, usually carbon-based, measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence.
    • The term “net-zero” is increasingly used to describe a broader and more comprehensive commitment to decarbonization and climate action.
    • Net-zero emissions are achieved when your organization’s emissions of all greenhouse gases (CO2-e) are balanced by greenhouse gas removals

    Methodology

    Carbon-neutral status can be achieved in two ways:

    • Carbon offsetting: Balancing carbon dioxide emissions with carbon offsets — the process of reducing or avoiding greenhouse gas emissions or removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to make up for emissions elsewhere. If the total greenhouse gasses emitted is equal to the total amount avoided or removed, then the two effects cancel each other out and the net emissions are ‘neutral’.
    • Reducing emissions: Reducing carbon emissions can be done by moving towards energy sources and industrial processes that produce fewer greenhouse gases, thereby transitioning to a low-carbon economy. Shifting towards the use of renewable energy such as hydro, wind, geothermal, and solar power, as well as nuclear power, reduces greenhouse gas emissions.

    Agreement and Target

    • The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015 and entered into force on 4 November 2016.
    • Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.
    • Article 4.1 of the Paris Agreement asks countries to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible.
    • It also requires countries to undertake rapid reductions in carbon emissions to achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases.

    Back2Basics:  Panchamrita

    • ‘Panchamrita’ is a traditional method of mixing five natural foods — milk, ghee, curd, honey, and jaggery.
    • These are used in Hindu and Jain worship rituals. It is also used as a technique in Ayurveda.
    • The PM euphemistically termed his scheme as ‘Panchamrita’ meaning the ‘five ambrosia’.
    • Under Panchamrita’, India will:
    1. Get its non-fossil energy capacity to 500 gigawatts by 2030
    2. Meet 50 percent of its energy requirements till 2030 with renewable energy
    3. Reduce its projected carbon emission by one billion tonnes by 2030
    4. Reduce the carbon intensity of its economy by 45 percent by 2030
    5. Achieve net-zero by 2070

     

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  • Who was Veer Kunwar Singh (1777-1858)?

    Political factions in Bihar has planned to organise the birth anniversary of the 1857 uprising hero Veer Kunwar Singh on April 23 at Jagdishpur in Bhojpur.

    Veer Kunwar Singh

    • Kunwar Singh also known as Babu Kunwar Singh was a leader during the uprising of 1857.
    • He belonged to a family of the Ujjainiya clan of the Parmar Rajputs of Jagdispur, currently a part of Bhojpur district, Bihar.
    • At the age of 80, he led a selected band of armed soldiers against the troops under the command of the British East India Company.
    • He was the chief organiser of the fight against the British in Bihar.
    • He is popularly known as Veer Kunwar Singh or Veer Babu Kunwar Singh.

    Role in 1857 Uprising

    • Singh led the Indian Rebellion of 1857 in Bihar. He was nearly eighty and in failing health when he was called upon to take up arms.
    • He was assisted by both his brother, Babu Amar Singh and his commander-in-chief, Hare Krishna Singh.
    • He gave a good fight and harried British forces for nearly a year and remained invincible until the end.
    • He was an expert in the art of guerrilla warfare.

    In popular culture

    • To honour his contribution to India’s freedom movement, the Centre issued a commemorative stamp on 23 April 1966.
    • The Government of Bihar established the Veer Kunwar Singh University, Arrah, in 1992.

     

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  • Places in news: East Timor

    Asia’s youngest nation, East Timor, also known as Timor Leste, holds the second and final round of its presidential election.

    About East Timor

    • The territory was colonized by Portugal in the 18th century and remained under is control until 1975.
    • When the Portuguese withdrew, troops from Indonesia invaded and annexed East Timor as its 27th province.
    • A long and bloody struggle for independence ensued, during which at least 100,000 people died.
    • The East Timorese voted for independence in a 1999 U.N.-supervised referendum, but that unleashed even more violence until peace-keeping forces were allowed to enter.
    • The country was officially recognized by the United Nations in 2002.
    • East Timor has applied to be a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). It currently holds observer status.

    Its geography

    • East Timor comprises the eastern half of Timor Island, the western half of which is part of Indonesia.
    • It spans a 15,000 square km (5,792 square mile) land area – slightly smaller than Israel – and it’s 1.3 million people are predominantly Roman Catholic.

    Politics and economy

    • In nearly 20 years since independence, East Timor’s presidential and parliamentary elections have been dominated by many of the same faces.
    • Its revolutionary have run for and held various positions of power and continue to feature prominently in the running of the country.
    • East Timor depends on revenues from its offshore oil and gas reserves which account for 90% of its gross domestic product.
    • Its main revenue stream, the Bayu Undan gas field, is set to dry up by 2023 and the country is now planning to collaborate with companies like Australia’s Santos to turn it into carbon capture facilities.

     

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  • Who was Guru Tegh Bahadur?

    The government will celebrate the 400th birth anniversary of Guru Tegh Bahadur with a two-day event at the Red Fort.

     Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675)

    • Guru Tegh Bahadur was the ninth of ten Gurus of the Sikh religion. He was born at Amritsar in 1621 and was the youngest son of Guru Hargobind.
    • His term as Guru ran from 1665 to 1675. One hundred and fifteen of his hymns are in Guru Granth Sahib.
    • There are several accounts explaining the motive behind the assassination of Guru Tegh Bahadur on Aurangzeb’s orders.
    • He stood up for the rights of Kashmiri Pandits who approached him against religious persecution by Aurangzeb.
    • He was publicly executed in 1675 on the orders of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in Delhi for himself refusing Mughal rulers and defying them.
    • Gurudwara Sis Ganj Sahib and Gurdwara Rakab Ganj Sahib in Delhi mark the places of execution and cremation of his body.

    Impact of his martyrdom

    • The execution hardened the resolve of Sikhs against religious oppression and persecution.
    • His martyrdom helped all Sikh Panths consolidate to make the protection of human rights central to its Sikh identity.
    • Inspired by him, his nine-year-old son, Guru Gobind Singh Ji, eventually organized the Sikh group into a distinct, formal, symbol-patterned community that came to be known as Khalsa (Martial) identity.
    • In the words of Noel King of the University of California, “Guru Teg Bahadur’s martyrdom was the first-ever martyrdom for human rights in the world.
    • He is fondly remembered as ‘Hind di Chaadar’.

    Try this PYQ:

    Q.Consider the following Bhakti Saints:

    1. Dadu Dayal
    2. Guru Nanak
    3. Tyagaraja

    Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?

    (a) 1 and 3

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3

    (d) 1 and 2

     

     

    [wpdiscuz-feedback id=”hnvg6h5b2p” question=”Please leave a feedback on this” opened=”1″]Post your answers here.[/wpdiscuz-feedback]

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  • Festivals in news: Karaga Festival

    The centuries-old Karaga (temple fair) festival was recently held at the Dharmaraya Swamy Temple in Bengaluru.

    Karaga Festival

    • It is celebrated annually in the Chaitra month (March/April) according to the Hindu calendar.
    • The festival has found its roots in the epic Mahabharata.
    • It honours Draupadi as the ideal woman and Goddess Shakti.
    • The word ‘Karaga’ translates to an earthen pot, supporting a floral pyramid and an idol of Goddess.
    • The Karaga is carried on the head of the bearer without touching it.
    • The carrier wears a woman’s attire with bangles, mangal-sutra, and vermillion on his forehead.

    Cultural significance of Karaga

    • The Karaga procession makes a customary halt at Astana e-Hazrath Tawakkal Mastan Shah Saharwardi Dargah to pay obeisance to Tawakkal Mastan.
    • The Dargah, a symbol of syncretic Sufism, has been taken care by the Muzavvar family for several generations.
    • According to them, the history of the Dargah goes back to at least 300 years when Tawakkal Mastan, who came to Bengaluru with his horses looking for business opportunities, was adored as a saint.
    • Hyder Ali, who was the ruler then, was a patron of Mastak for his good deeds.

     

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  • Maharashtra develops Migration Tracking System (MTS)

    In a first-of-its-kind project in the country, the Maharashtra government has developed a website-based migration tracking system (MTS) application to map the movement of vulnerable seasonal migrant workers through individual unique identity numbers.

    What is MTS Project?

    • The MTS project is envisaged to maintain the continuity of the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) like nutrition supply, immunisation and health check-up etc. to migrant beneficiaries.
    • It is targeted for children aged up to 18 years, lactating mothers and pregnant women registered with the Anganwadi centres.
    • Their migration will be tracked for ensuring the portability of the ICDS for their families in their destination districts within or outside the state until their return to their native places.

    Need for such a project

    • Distress-driven seasonal migration of workers is quite prevalent in Maharashtra.
    • Due to lockdowns, a large number of women and children had got displaced and missed on their nutrition, vaccination and other services under the ICDS scheme.
    • Like other states, does not have any institutionalized mechanism to enumerate it.
    • So, through this initiative, the state has sought to capture the data of intra-district, inter-districts and interstate migration of such workers.

    Working details of the project

    • Anganwadi workers have to first register the migrating beneficiaries from their areas on the MTS website app on their laptops or mobile phones by using the workers’ identity cards like Aadhaar, PAN card, or ration cards etc.
    • Other than names, the Anganwadi workers have to mention the age, weight, and height of the migrant children, who will be placed in nutritional categories like severe, moderate or acute.
    • Depending on this data, the nutrition benefits will be allocated to the children in their new locations.
    • On the MTS app, the Anganwadi workers would also collect details about various informal sectors — such as brick kilns, agriculture labour, stone crushing, construction work, sugarcane cutting or sugar factory — where the migrant workers are headed along with their children.

     

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  • What is the ‘Long Period Average’, IMD’s benchmark for monsoon prediction?

    India is likely to receive a normal monsoon for the fourth consecutive year, the India Meteorological Department (IMD) said in its first Long Range Forecast (LRF) for this year.

    What is Long Period Average (LPA)?

    • The IMD predicts a “normal”, “below normal”, or “above normal” monsoon in relation to a benchmark “long period average” (LPA).
    • The LPA of rainfall is the rainfall recorded over a particular region for a given interval (like month or season) average over a long period like 30 years, 50 years, etc.
    • LPA refers to the average rainfall recorded from June to September for the entire country, the amount of rain that falls every year varies from region to region and from month to month.
    • The IMD’s prediction of a normal monsoon is based on the LPA of the 1971-2020 period, during which India received 87 cm of rain for the entire country on average.
    • It has in the past calculated the LPA at 88 cm for the 1961-2010 period, and at 89 cm for the period 1951-2000.

    Why LPA is needed?

    • The IMD records rainfall data at more than 2,400 locations and 3,500 rain-gauge stations.
    • Because annual rainfall can vary greatly not just from region to region and from month to month, but also from year to year within a particular region or month.
    • An LPA is needed to smooth out trends so that a reasonably accurate prediction can be made.
    • A 50-year LPA covers for large variations in either direction caused by freak years of unusually high or low rainfall, as well as for the periodic drought years.
    • It also takes into account the increasingly common extreme weather events caused by climate change.

    Range of normal rainfall

    The IMD maintains five rainfall distribution categories on an all-India scale. These are:

    1. Normal or near normal, when the percentage departure of actual rainfall is +/-10% of LPA, that is, between 96-104% of LPA;
    2. Below normal, when departure of actual rainfall is less than 10% of LPA, that is 90-96% of LPA;
    3. Above normal, when actual rainfall is 104-110% of LPA;
    4. Deficient, when departure of actual rainfall is less than 90% of LPA; and
    5. Excess, when the departure of actual rainfall is more than 110% of LPA.

    Also read:

    Various terms related to Indian Monsoon

     

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  • Solving India’s idol theft problem

    Context

    Building an inventory of antiquities should be the first step in dealing with the problem.

    Measures taken by the worldwide organisations

    • CAG in its 2013 Report stated that “131 antiquities were stolen from monuments/sites and 37 antiquities from Site Museums from 1981 to 2012″
    • It added that in similar situations, worldwide, organisations took many more effective steps:
    • 1] Checking of catalogues of international auction house(s),
    • 2] Posting news of such theft on websites.
    • 3] Posting information about theft in the International Art Loss Registry.
    • 4] Sending photographs of stolen objects electronically to dealers and auction houses and intimate scholars in the field.
    • Lack of legal provisions: The report also stated that the ASI had never participated or collected information on Indian antiquities put on sale at well-known international auction houses viz. Sotheby’s, Christie’s, etc. as there was no explicit provision in the AAT (Antiquities and Art Treasures) Act, 1972 for doing so.

    International conventions and treaties

    • India is a signatory to the 1970 UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property. (We ratified it in 1977).
    • Perhaps we should also sign the 1995 UNIDROIT (International Institute for the Unification of Private Law) Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects.

    Lessons from Italy

    • Italy also suffers and several stolen antiquities have been returned by the US to Italy.
    • That being the case, it shouldn’t be surprising that many best practices originate in Italy.
    • The following list is illustrative.
    • (1) A specific law on protecting cultural heritage, with enhanced penalties;
    • (2) Centralised management before granting authorisation for archaeological research;
    • (3) Specialisation in cultural heritage for public prosecutors;
    • (4) An inter-ministerial committee for recovery and return of cultural objects;
    • (5) MOUs and bilateral agreements with other countries and international organisations to prevent illegal trafficking;
    • (6) Involvement of private organisations and individuals in protection;
    • (7) A complete inventory of moveable and immoveable cultural heritage, with detailed catalogues;
    • (8) Monitoring and inspection of cultural sites; and
    • (9) Centralised granting of export requests.

    Way forward

    • One could say the 2013 CAG Report did a bit of (8), but that was a one-off and isn’t a permanent solution.
    • This isn’t a binary, nor is it possible to accomplish everything overnight. However, incrementally, one can move towards (1), (3), (4), (5), (6), (8) and, especially, (7).
    • We should start with that inventory.

    Conclusion

    While fingers can rightly be pointed at Western museums and auction-houses (this isn’t only about the colonial era), there is internal connivance.

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