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GS Paper: GS2

  • Critically examine the role of WHO in providing global health security during the Covid-19 pandemic.

    The WHO, established in 1948, is the UN’s specialized agency responsible for global public health coordination. During the COVID-19 pandemic, its actions were criticized for lack of timeliness, transparency, and independence.

    Positive Role of WHO during the Pandemic

    Early Alerts: Declared COVID-19 a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC) in January 2020.

    Technical Guidance: Issued scientific protocols, travel advisories, and surveillance guidelines to member states.

    Global Solidarity Mechanisms: Launched the Access to COVID-19 Tools Accelerator (ACT-A) and COVAX Facility to ensure equitable vaccine distribution.

    Information Sharing: Provided daily situation reports and facilitated exchange of data among countries.

    Support to Developing Nations through logistics, diagnostics, and training.

    Research and development about the virus – transmission, mutation, and vaccination.

    Criticisms and Limitations

    Delayed Declaration of Pandemic: Accused of underestimating the early outbreak in Wuhan and relying too heavily on China’s official data.

    Political Influence: inadequate scrutiny of China’s early containment measures.

    Weak Enforcement Powers: WHO lacks authority to compel nations to share data or enforce health regulations under the International Health Regulations (2005).

    Vaccine Inequity: Despite COVAX, vaccine access remained highly unequal.

    Funding Dependence: Over 80% of WHO’s budget comes from voluntary contributions.

    Confusion among public and healthcare professionals due to inconsistencies in communication

    Way Forward

    Strengthen the International Health Regulations (IHR) for faster response and accountability.

    Establish a Global Health Emergency Council for coordinated crisis action.

    Financial autonomy to reduce donor dependency.

    To ensure future global health security, WHO must evolve into a more independent, transparent, and empowered institution, capable of acting decisively in the face of global emergencies.

  • ‘Indian diaspora has a decisive role to play in the politics and economy of America and European Countries’. Comment with examples.

    With over 32 million PIOs and NRIs spread across 200 countries, the Indian diaspora has become one of the most influential transnational communities in the world.

    Role of Indian Diaspora in Politics

    Political Representation: Growing Indian-origin leadership at top levels. Eg- Kamala Harris (US Vice President), Rishi Sunak (UK Prime Minister), Leo Varadkar (Irish PM)

    Legislative Influence: shape progressive policies on trade, technology, and social justice. Eg- Pramila Jayapal, Ro Khanna

    Policy Advocacy: Indian diaspora groups like USINPAC and Indiaspora influence US policy on immigration (H-1B visas), education, and bilateral cooperation.

    Community Mobilisation: Eg- Political events like ‘Howdy Modi’ and ‘Namaste Trump’

    Bridge for Strategic Partnerships by fostering dialogue and diplomacy. Eg- role in Indo-US civil nuclear deal

    Representation of Diversity: Their success promotes multiculturalism and inclusion in Western democracies

    Peacebuilding Role by facilitating intercultural dialogue and countering xenophobia. Eg- Zohran Mamdani, the newly elected mayor of New York City.

    Role of Indian Diaspora in Economy

    Corporate Leadership: Sundar Pichai (Google), Satya Nadella (Microsoft) etc drive innovation and digital transformation.

    Entrepreneurship and Start-ups: Eg- Rishi Khosla (OakNorth Bank, UK) and Kunal Nayyar (Series Investor)

    Over 3 lakh Indian IT professionals in the US and highest number of EU Blue Card holders among immigrants in Europe.

    Research and Innovation: Strong presence in STEM fields, academia, and medicine

    Philanthropy and Social Impact: contribute to educational endowments, healthcare funding, and start-up mentoring.

    Their high purchasing power and participation in services, finance, and technology contribute directly to GDP and employment growth in host countries.

    Challenges

    Security Threats – Eg- Khalistani groups in Canada

    Issues of discrimination and racism

    Brain Drain concerns

    As PM Narendra Modi noted, “The Indian diaspora is our global ambassador of talent, trust, and transformation.” Thus, sustained institutional dialogue is essential.

  • Indian Constitution exhibits centralising tendencies to maintain unity and integrity of the nation. Elucidate in the perspective of the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897; The Disaster Management Act, 2005 and recently passed Farm Acts.

    According to Paul Brass “Indian federalism is highly centralized, designed more to maintain unity than to promote autonomy.”

    Centralising Tendencies in the Indian Constitution

    Legal (Constitutional & Legislative)

    Residuary Powers (Art. 248, Entry 97 Union List) – Vested in Parliament, not States.

    Dominance of Union List (Art. 246) – 100 subjects; State List is narrower.

    Concurrent List (Art. 254) – Union law prevails in case of conflict.

    Emergency Provisions (Arts. 352, 356, 360) – Centre can override State powers.

    Parliament can legislate on State subjects under Art. 249.

    Governor’s Role (Art. 200, 201)

    Administrative

    All-India Services (Art. 312)

    Office of Governor – Agent of Centre in States

    Union’s directions to States (Arts. 256-257) – States bound to ensure compliance with Union laws.

    Deployment of Armed Forces

    Financial

    Centralised Finance – Major revenue sources (income tax, customs, excise, GST) with Union.

    Borrowing restrictions (Art. 293) – States require Centre’s consent to borrow.

    Cess and surcharges (Art. 270) not shared with States (Eg- Education Cess, Health Cess)

    GST regime – Erodes States’ fiscal autonomy.

    Centralising Tendencies in Indian Constitution

    Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897

    Public Health is a State List subject (Entry 6, List II), but the Centre can issue uniform guidelines.

    Empowers Centre to declare any disease as epidemic.

    Union can issue regulations for prevention and containment.

    Authority to restrict movement and detain individuals during epidemics.

    Centre can override conflicting State laws.

    Disaster Management Act, 2005

    Law and order and public health are primarily State subjects, but Act was used to declare nationwide lockdowns, interstate movement controls, and essential supply chains during COVID-19.

    State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMA) include central representatives.

    Union controls allocation and distribution of resources across States.

    Centre can override States’ decisions in disaster response.

    National Response Force primarily drawn from central armed forces.

    Farm Acts, 2020 (repealed in 2021)

    Though Agriculture is a State List subject, Parliament legislated under Concurrent List (Entry 33).

    Weakened State APMC mandis by allowing farmers to sell outside their jurisdiction.

    Dispute resolution mechanisms

    Gave Centre greater control over regulation of essential commodities.

    Enhanced central role in agri-marketing and e-marketing of produce.

    Analysis of Centralising Tendencies

    “Federalism is not a monolith; it is a dialogue between self-rule and shared rule.” Thus, such Acts must be exercised with consultation and cooperation.

  • “Recent amendments to the Right to Information Act will have profound impact on the autonomy and independence of the Information Commission”. Discuss.

    The Right to Information (RTI) Act, 2005 is a cornerstone of transparent and accountable governance in India. The RTI (Amendment) Act, 2019 introduced changes to the service conditions of the CIC and ICs.

    Amendments to the RTI Act, 2019

    The tenure of the CIC and ICs (earlier fixed at 5 years) is now to be determined by the Central Government.

    The salaries, allowances, and other service conditions of CICs and ICs are also subject to executive notification, replacing the earlier parity with Election Commissioners.

    The status and equivalence of the CIC and ICs with constitutional authorities like the Election Commission have been removed.

    Impact on Autonomy and Independence

    Executive Control Over Tenure, undermines security of office and increasing executive dependence.

    The original status equal to the Election Commission is withdrawn, reducing the Commission’s symbolic and functional autonomy.

    Threat to Federal Autonomy- Centre’s control over State Information Commissions’ service conditions.

    Chilling Effect on Decision-Making- Fear of punitive transfers or reduced tenure can deter bold and impartial rulings against powerful authorities.

    Perceived loss of independence can erode citizens’ confidence in the Commission as a neutral watchdog.

    Compromised autonomy weakens enforcement of the right to information, curbing transparency and accountability.

    Other issues (Satark Nagrik Sangathan Report)

    7 out of 29 Information Commissions were completely defunct between July 2023 and June 2024

    In 2024, 9 Commissions were functioning without a Chief Information Commissioner

    Rising Backlogs- Over 4 lakh appeals and complaints pending

    High Rejection Rate- The CIC returned 42% of appeals/complaints received

    Since 2005, only 9% of all Information Commissioners have been women

    Way Forward

    Establish a National Coordination Committee (NCC) to monitor RTI implementation and ensure uniformity across states.

    Fill vacancies in Information Commissions promptly to prevent delays and backlogs.

    Engage information management experts for proper classification, cataloguing, and storage of records.

    Introduce a separate legal chapter to protect RTI applicants and activists from harassment and retaliation.

    Sunlight is the best disinfectant. Thus, the autonomy of the Information Commissions must be safeguarded to strengthen Right to Information under Article 19.

  • How far do you think cooperation, competition and confrontation have shaped the nature of federation in India? Cite some recent examples to validate your answer.

    As per Rajeev Bhargava, Indian federalism is “multi-layered federalism”, involving cooperation, competition and confrontation.

    Cooperation – Building Cooperative Federalism

    GST Council (2017-present)– Example of Centre-State cooperation in indirect tax reform.

    NITI Aayog– Platform for policy collaboration on health, education, climate, and SDGs.

    COVID-19 Pandemic (2020-21)– Joint management of lockdowns, vaccination drives, and health protocols.

    National Education Policy 2020– Designed through Centre-State consultations.

    Competition – Driving Competitive Federalism

    Ease of Doing Business rankings by DPIIT– States competing to attract investment.

    Investment Summits – Gujarat (Vibrant Gujarat), UP (GIS 2023)

    NITI Aayog Indices – Eg- SDG Index, Health Index etc

    Tourism branding – Kerala (eco-tourism), MP (wildlife), Odisha (sports tourism)

    Confrontation – Political and Constitutional Tensions

    Delhi vs Union (2018 & 2023 SC rulings, GNCTD Amendment Act 2023)– Tussle over control of services and administration.

    Farm Laws (2020-21 protests)– States like Punjab opposed Union laws encroaching on agriculture.

    NEET & Education policy– Tamil Nadu contesting Centre’s dominance in education, a Concurrent List subject.

    Governor-State conflicts– Frequent in Kerala, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu over assent to bills.

    Fiscal confrontations– Disputes over GST compensation cess (2020-22).

    Centrally sponsored schemes– States complain of shrinking fiscal autonomy due to high tied grants.

    “Federalism is not a monolith; it is a dialogue between self-rule and shared rule.” Both Union & States are creatures of the Constitution

  • The judicial systems in India and UK seem to be converging as well as diverging in recent times. Highlight the key points of convergence and divergence between the two nations in terms of their judicial practices.

    India and the United Kingdom share a common-law heritage, where judicial institutions evolved from British colonial foundations.

    Points of Convergence

    Common Law Tradition: Both follow the adversarial system, rely on precedents, and uphold judicial reasoning as binding (stare decisis).

    Judicial Independence: Guaranteed through security of tenure, financial autonomy, and appointment systems (Art. 124-147; Constitutional Reform Act, 2005).

    Human Rights and Constitutional Values:

    India: Expansion of Article 21 to include right to dignity, privacy (Puttaswamy, 2017).

    UK: Human Rights Act (1998) incorporates European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) into domestic law.

    Judicial Accountability and Transparency: Open court proceedings, reasoned judgments, and live streaming of constitutional benches (India, 2023).

    Judicial Activism: Both judiciaries increasingly intervene in governance and rights issues (Kesavananda Bharati, R (Miller) 2017 on Brexit).

    Technological Modernization: Adoption of e-courts, virtual hearings, and AI-assisted case management in both systems.

    Points of Divergence

    Constitutional Framework: India has a written Constitution establishing judicial supremacy; UK follows parliamentary sovereignty and unwritten conventions.

    Judicial Review Power: Indian courts can strike down laws violating the Constitution (Kesavananda Bharati); UK courts can only issue declarations of incompatibility.

    Hierarchy and Structure: India has a single integrated judiciary; UK has distinct legal systems for England, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.

    Appointment Mechanism: India uses the Collegium system; UK uses the Judicial Appointments Commission with statutory oversight.

    Public Interest Litigation (PIL): India practices broad locus standi for social justice (S.P. Gupta); UK maintains restrictive standing for judicial review.

    Binding Nature of Precedent: In India, Supreme Court decisions bind all (Art. 141); in UK, Parliamentary sovereignty can override judicial interpretation.

    Judicial Activism vs. Restraint: Indian judiciary is transformative and interventionist; UK judiciary is cautious and precedent-bound.

    Basic Structure Doctrine: Unique to India-courts can protect the basic structure of the Constitution; no such principle exists in the UK.

    While India’s judiciary functions as a constitutional guardian, the UK judiciary operates under parliamentary sovereignty, reflecting two evolving but interconnected models of democratic justice.

  • ‘Once a Speaker, Always a Speaker’! Do you think this practice should be adopted to impart objectivity to the office of the Speaker of Lok Sabha? What could be its implications for the robust functioning of parliamentary business in India?

    According to Nehru,’Speaker represents dignity & freedom of house & as House represents nation, Speaker becomes a symbol of nation’s freedom & liberty.’ Once a speaker, Always a speaker is a British system aimed to ensure neutrality of office of speaker.

    Issues in office of Speaker

    Combining presiding and quasi-judicial roles, causes conflict of interest.

    Partisan Bias – Delays in Manipur & Maharashtra defection cases (2020-23) benefited ruling coalitions.

    Unilateral Suspension Powers – Rule 374A allows mass suspensions (e.g., 146 MPs in 2023) without adequate checks.

    Money Bill – Aadhaar Act (2016) passed as Money Bill, bypassing Rajya Sabha scrutiny.

    Speaker remains party-affiliated, unlike the UK’s non-partisan model.

    Judicial Non-Interference (Art. 122) – Speaker’s discretion largely beyond judicial review.

    Weak Parliamentary Conventions – No codified norms; decisions often politically motivated.

    Decline in Deliberation – “Railroading” of bills (e.g., Farm Bills, 2020) reduces discussion quality.

    Executarian Speakership – Rising executive influence eroding neutrality and institutional integrity.

    Positive Implications of Adopting “Once a Speaker, Always a Speaker”

    Restored Neutrality – Permanent detachment from party politics enhances objectivity and moral authority.

    Improved Parliamentary Discipline – Equal enforcement of rules encourages constructive debate over disruption.

    Fair and Equal Treatment – Ensures equal opportunities for participation, giving every member’s voice due respect, irrespective of party affiliation.

    Better Executive Oversight – Impartial Speaker can ensure accountable functioning of government in Parliament.

    Building Consensus – A neutral Speaker fosters an environment conducive to consensus-building and cooperative decision-making.

    Impartial Decision-Making – Promotes fairness in-

    Rulings on points of order,

    Interpretation of parliamentary rules,

    Decisions on admissibility of bills and motions, and

    Protection of members’ rights and privileges.

    Upholding the Dignity of Office – Acts as a symbol of neutrality, integrity, and impartiality, thereby strengthening the moral authority of Parliament.

    Global Best Practice Alignment – Similar to UK model, where Speaker contests as “Speaker seeking re-election,” maintaining impartiality.

    Way Forward-

    Codify Speaker’s neutrality – mandatory resignation from political party upon election.

    Amend Rule 374A – require House concurrence for suspensions beyond one day.

    Limit Speaker’s Role in Anti-Defection Law- In the Keisham Meghachandra Singh case, the Supreme Court suggested that the current system could be replaced by a permanent tribunal.

    Introduce legislative due process – guarantee minimum debate standards. (Inspired by Rosalind Dixon’s theory of legislative dysfunction and Israel’s Quantinsky v. Knesset (2021), which annulled a rushed tax law for violating principle of participation.)

    Create a Standing Committee on Parliamentary Procedures to oversee the Speaker’s administrative decisions, particularly related to the agenda-setting and motion approvals.

    As M. Venkaiah Naidu observed, debate, discussion, and decision, which form the edifice of parliamentary democracy.” A truly impartial Speaker is the cornerstone of that edifice.

  • In order to enhance the prospects of social development, sound and adequate health care policies are needed particularly in the fields of geriatric and maternal health care. Discuss.

    ​​Social development rests on improving human well-being, equity, and inclusivity. Health care is a key determinant of human capital formation and social progress.

    Importance of Geriatric Care

    India’s elderly (60+ years) population is projected to reach 19.5% by 2050 (UNFPA).

    A larger elderly population implies growing dependency ratios and burden on families and social welfare

    Healthy and active elderly contribute to knowledge transfer, social cohesion, and community engagement.

    Reduces healthcare expenditure through preventive and primary care, enhancing productivity of caregivers.

    Healthy ageing aligns with the SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being) and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities).

    Key Interventions

    National Programme for Health Care of the Elderly (NPHCE) – dedicated geriatric units in district hospitals.

    Atal Vayo Abhyuday Yojana (AVYAY) – integrated senior citizen welfare.

    Ayushman Bharat – provides insurance for elderly with chronic diseases.

    Importance of Maternal Healthcare

    Foundation of Human Development – Maternal health directly influences infant mortality, child nutrition, and family welfare.

    Promotes inter-generational well-being, preventing malnutrition and anaemia cycles.

    Economic Impact – Reduces healthcare costs, improves labour participation of women,

    Healthier mothers mean healthier children and better learning outcomes, strengthening the human capital base.

    Key Interventions

    Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) and Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana (PMMVY) – incentives for institutional deliveries and nutrition.

    POSHAN 2.0 – integration of health and nutrition for pregnant and lactating women.

    LaQshya and SUMAN – focus on quality maternal and newborn care.

    Challenges in Maternal and Geriatric Healthcare

    Shortage of geriatric specialists, gynaecologists, and ASHA workers in rural areas.

    Regional Disparities – Maternal mortality in Assam (195) vs. Kerala (19).

    Out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE) remains 40%, pushing poor households into poverty.

    Focus remains on curative rather than preventive health.

    Social and Cultural Barriers

    Patriarchal norms restrict women’s access to healthcare and nutrition.

    Elderly often face neglect, isolation, and financial insecurity.

    Way Forward

    Increase Public Health Expenditure to 2.5% of GDP as per National Health Policy 2017.

    Strengthen Home-Based Care Models and palliative services for the elderly.

    Decentralize Planning and Monitoring via Panchayati Raj Institutions. (Kerala Model)

    Strengthen ASHAs, ANMs, and geriatric caregivers at village level.

    Use of telemedicine (eSanjeevani) and digital records for continuum of care.

    A life-cycle approach to health is essential to achieve equitable and sustainable development and achieve Viksit Bharat @2047.

  • “There is a need for simplification of procedure for disqualification of persons found guilty of corrupt practices under the Representation of Peoples Act”. Comment.

    The RPA, 1951 provides the statutory framework for conducting elections and maintaining the integrity of India’s democratic process.

    Procedure of Disqualification

    Under Articles 103 & 192, President or Governor’s Decision acts on the advice of the Election Commission.

    Election Petition (Section 80, RPA, 1951) in the High Court within 45 days of result declaration. Appeal to SC within 30 Days

    Positive Impacts of Simplification

    Enhances Public Trust

    Improves Integrity of the Electoral Process

    Strengthens Rule of Law

    Promotes Ethical Politics

    Upholds Constitutional Morality

    Thus, simplification of disqualification provisions are needed to ensure the trinity of Ethics, Accountability and Fairness of electoral process.

  • Critically examine the aims and objectives of SCO. What importance does it hold for India?

    The SCO, evolved from the Shanghai Five (1996), was founded in 2001, as a Eurasian political, economic, and security organisation. In the recent summit, Laos joined as a partner, expanding SCO’s strength to 27 nations (10 members, 17 partners).

    Aims and Objectives of SCO

    Security Cooperation

    Combat terrorism, separatism, and extremism (the “Three Evils”).

    Enhance regional peace and border stability.

    Economic Cooperation

    Promote regional trade, connectivity, and energy integration.

    Facilitate economic development and mutual prosperity.

    Political and Strategic Cooperation

    Strengthen multipolarity and collective global governance.

    Counterbalance Western unilateralism.

    Support UN-based international order.

    Cultural and People-to-People Ties – Enhance educational, tourism, and youth exchanges through SCO University, Cultural Forums, and Youth Camps.

    Critical Examination of SCO

    China-Pakistan-Russia Axis creates a complex geopolitical matrix with conflicting interests, especially in Afghanistan.

    China-Pakistan all weather relationship – Eg- India’s Defence Minister refused to sign the joint statement for omission of mention of Pahalgam terror attack

    China’s Wolf warrior diplomacy, Chequebook diplomacy disrespect for international rules and sovereignty erodes SCO’s credibility.

    Expansionist Agenda via BRI- Eg- China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) passes through Indian territory (PoK) – opposed by India.

    Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS) in Tashkent fails to act decisively against cross-border terrorism, particularly state-sponsored terrorism.

    China’s use of veto in the UNSC to shield Pakistan-based global terrorists undermines anti-terror efforts.

    Limited trade integration -intra-SCO trade remains below 10%.

    Ideological mismatch -India’s democratic ethos vs authoritarian bloc politics.

    Expansion Dilemma- SCO’s enlargement, including Belarus, raises its global profile but dilutes regional focus.

    “identity crisis” – absence of enforcement mechanisms making it a mere talking shop. (Vivek Katju)

    SCO is increasingly seen as an “anti-West” forum and entry of Iran in SCO has made the situation difficult for India.

    Significance of SCO for India

    Strengthens India’s strategic outreach in Central Asia.

    India hosting the SCO Summit (2023) allowed it to promote democratic and rule-based values within a predominantly authoritarian grouping.

    Expand trade footprint in Eurasia- Provides access to large Central Asian markets for agriculture, manufacturing, and pharmaceuticals.

    Technological Cooperation- Opens avenues for collaboration in AI, quantum computing, and critical technologies.

    Energy Diplomacy – Access to Central Asian uranium reserves and hydrocarbons strengthens India’s energy security.

    Security Cooperation through RATS (Tashkent), enables counter-terror dialogue with China, Pakistan, and Central Asian states.

    Connectivity Initiatives- Supports Chabahar Port and INSTC as key trade routes to Eurasia, reducing dependence on Pakistan-controlled routes.

    Diplomatic Importance

    Enhances India’s strategic autonomy in a multipolar world.

    Acts as a bridge between South Asia and Eurasia.

    Complements India’s “Connect Central Asia” and “Act East” policies.

    Public Diplomacy- Enhances Track 2 diplomacy and cultural exchanges. Promotes academic, tourism, and youth linkages.

    Cultural Cooperation- Deepens ties in cultural, linguistic, and energy sectors.

    Way Forward

    Use SCO for counter-terrorism diplomacy and regional stability.

    Deepen energy cooperation and promote green connectivity.

    Coordinate with Russia and Central Asia for balanced engagement vis-à-vis China.

    Leverage SCO to push for multipolarity and inclusive growth.

    SCO can help realise India’s ambitions on “multi-alignment”, “strategic autonomy” and becoming a “balancing power” in the world.