GS Paper: GS3

What is an Electromagnet?

Why in the News?

Recently Scientists have designed a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner that costs a fraction of existing machines, setting the stage for improving access to this widely used diagnostic tool. So we need to know about the Electromagnet.

What is an Electromagnet?

Invented in 1824 by William Sturgeon, electromagnets revolutionised technology.
Sturgeon was an English physicist and inventor who discovered that wrapping a coil of wire around a piece of iron and passing an electric current through the wire produced a magnetic field.
Electromagnets are used in Loudspeakers for sound reproduction, Motors for mechanical movement., and MRI machines for medical imaging, etc

How Electromagnets Work?

Electric current flowing through a wire generates a magnetic field around the wire.
Coiling the wire enhances this magnetic field by concentrating it within the coil’s core.
This configuration creates an electromagnet, where the strength of the magnetic field is directly proportional to the current flowing through the coil.
The magnetic flux density so generated is measured in ‘Tesla’.

Enhancing Magnetic Strength with a Core

Coiling the wire around a magnetic material (core), such as iron or steel:
- Amplifies the magnetic field produced by the electric current.
- Ferromagnetic materials like iron align their internal magnetic domains with the external magnetic field generated by the coil.
- This alignment significantly increases the overall magnetic strength of the electromagnet compared to a non-magnetic core.

Persistence of Magnetization

It refers to the property of a material to retain a certain amount of magnetization even after the removal of an external magnetic field.
Certain core materials exhibit retained magnetization even after the current ceases.
This residual magnetism is useful in applications requiring sustained magnetic fields, such as:
- Superconducting electromagnets used in MRI machines, are capable of producing magnetic fields up to 30 Tesla.
- Research electromagnets like those used in particle physics, which require stable and powerful magnetic fields.

Who was Michael Faraday (1791-1867)?

Michael Faraday was a pioneering English scientist and physicist who made substantial contributions to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry.
Faraday is best known for his experiments and discoveries in electromagnetism, which laid the groundwork for the principles of electromagnetic induction and the laws of electrolysis.

Key achievements of Michael Faraday include:

Electromagnetic Induction: He discovered electromagnetic induction in 1831, showing that a changing magnetic field induces an electric current in a nearby conductor.
Electrochemistry: Faraday formulated the laws of electrolysis, which describe the quantitative relationship between the amount of material produced or consumed during electrolysis and the amount of electricity passed through the electrolyte.
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction: These laws describe the fundamental principles of generating electricity using magnetic fields, forming the basis for the development of electric generators and transformers.
Faraday Cage: He invented the Faraday cage, a device used to block electromagnetic fields.

PYQ:

[2011] Microbial fuel cells are considered a source of sustainable energy. Why?

They use living organisms as catalysts to generate electricity from certain substrates.
They use a variety of inorganic materials as substrates.
They can be installed in wastewater treatment plants to cleanse water and produce electricity.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

June 17, 2024

In news: Nagarhole Tiger Reserve

Why in the News?

Ashwatthama, a 38-year-old elephant, died of electrocution near Karnataka’s Nagarahole Tiger Reserve.
- The High Court of Karnataka suo motu initiated a PIL petition to inquire about this incident attributed to a lack of care and diligence by concerned authorities.

Nagarahole Tiger Reserve

Located in the Western Ghats in Karnataka; Spans over 643 square kilometers.
Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1955 and a tiger reserve in 1999.
Part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) and a Project Tiger, Project Elephant reserve.
Managed by the Karnataka Forest Department with efforts focused on conservation, ecotourism, and community engagement.
The reserve is crisscrossed by several rivers such as the Kabini River, Lakshmana Tirtha River, and Moyar River.
- Flora and Fauna: Known for its diverse ecosystem, including tropical and moist deciduous forests, home to a variety of wildlife such as tigers, leopards, elephants, gaur, and several species of deer and birds.

Protective Measures: Project Elephant

It was launched in the year 1992 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with the following objectives:
- To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors
- To address issues of man-animal conflict
- The welfare of captive elephants
It covers 23 states across India.
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change provides financial and technical support to major elephant range states in the country through the project.
It contributed to the increase in the wild elephant population from around 25,000 in 1992 to about 30,000 in 2021.

Status of Elephant Conservation in India

	Details
Population Estimate	India hosts the largest population of wild Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus), with around 29,964 individuals, Approximately 60% of the global population (2017 census).
Leading States	Karnataka holds the highest number of elephants, followed by Assam and Kerala.
Conservation Status	IUCN Red List: Endangered. CMS: Appendix I. Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Listed under Schedule I, CITES: Appendix I.

PYQ:

[2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:

The leader of an elephant group is a female.
The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 and 4 only

(d) 1, 3 and 4 only

June 15, 2024

No outcome in Bonn: why money is key to climate action

Why in the news?

The Bonn climate meeting failed to define a new climate finance goal, crucial for finalizing a sum exceeding $100 billion annually by the end of 2024.

Key Highlights of the Climate Meeting in Bonn, Germany

Failure to Define New Climate Finance Goal: The recent climate meeting in Bonn did not make significant progress in setting a new climate finance goal. This new goal is supposed to replace the existing $100 billion per year target, which needs to be finalized by the end of 2024.
Outcome: The meeting only produced a lengthy 35-page “input paper” summarizing various countries’ demands and concerns, without providing any concrete numbers or agreements. This paper is expected to be developed into a formal negotiating draft for COP29 in Baku, Azerbaijan.

Search for a New NCQG (New Collective Quantified Goal)

Importance of Climate Finance: Money is essential for climate action, including mitigation, adaptation, and other tasks like collecting and reporting climate data, which require substantial funds, especially in developing countries.
Existing Commitment: Developed countries had promised to mobilize $100 billion annually from 2020 to help developing countries fight climate change. This target is now being re-evaluated to increase the amount post-2025.

Previous Assessment

Current Needs: It is widely recognized that developing countries now require trillions of dollars annually. A UNFCCC assessment indicated that these countries need about $6 trillion by 2030 for climate actions, with adaptation needs alone requiring $215 billion to $387 billion annually.
Energy Transition: The global shift to clean energy requires investments of about $4.3 trillion per year until 2030 and around $5 trillion annually thereafter until 2050 to achieve global net-zero emissions.
Developing Countries’ Demands: India has proposed that developed countries should provide at least $1 trillion annually after 2025, while Arab and African countries have suggested figures of $1.1 trillion and $1.3 trillion, respectively.

Debate Over Contribution

Original Responsibility: According to the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement, only the 25 countries listed in Annexure 2, along with the European Economic Community, are responsible for providing climate finance to developing countries.
Shifting Responsibility: These countries argue that other nations, such as China, Gulf countries, and South Korea, are now economically capable and should also contribute. However, countries like China have stated they do not intend to take on additional responsibilities beyond their current efforts.
Developed Countries’ Stance: While acknowledging that the new target must be higher than the existing $100 billion per year, developed countries have not made any specific offers publicly.

Way forward:

Clear Definition of Climate Finance: Establish a universally accepted definition of climate finance to prevent discrepancies in reporting and ensure transparency.
Precise Targets and Timelines: Set clear, incremental targets leading up to the final goal, with defined timelines for achieving these targets. This will provide a roadmap for both developed and developing countries.

Mains PYQ:

Q Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC IAS/2021)

June 15, 2024

Kavli Prize, 2024 Announced

Why in the News?

The winners of the 2024 Kavli Prize were announced, recognising achievements in astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience.

About Kavli Prize

The Kavli Prize celebrates outstanding achievements in astrophysics, neuroscience, and nanoscience.
It is established in honour of Norwegian-American businessman and philanthropist Fred Kavli (1927-2013).
Awarded biennially, the prize recognizes researchers whose work pushes the boundaries of human knowledge and enhances our understanding of the universe, the brain, and nanoscale phenomena.

About Fred Kavli

Fred Kavli, born in Erejsford, Norway, immigrated to California in 1956 and quickly made a mark in the engineering field.
His entrepreneurial journey began in 1958 with the founding of Kavlico, a pioneering company known for its precision pressure sensors used across diverse industries, from aviation to consumer electronics.

The Kavli Foundation:

In 2000, after selling Kavlico for $340 million, Fred Kavli established the Kavli Foundation.
This philanthropic organisation supports fundamental research aimed at improving global quality of life.
The foundation operates 20 institutes worldwide dedicated to astrophysics, neuroscience, nanoscience, and theoretical physics.

Prize Structure and Prestige:

Comparison with Nobel Prize: The Kavli Prize mirrors the Nobel Prize in its prestige and international recognition but differs by not limiting awards to achievements within the preceding year, allowing broader scope and longevity in selection criteria.
Award Ceremony: Each Kavli Prize includes a $1 million cash award per field, a scroll, and a 7 cm diameter medal. The ceremony, held at the Oslo Concert Hall and attended by global scientific leaders, features a red-carpet event, emphasizing its significance in the scientific community.
Selection Process:

Committees: Three international committees nominate and review candidates, providing a unanimous recommendation to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.
Nominees: Nominees come from prestigious institutions worldwide, ensuring a diverse and comprehensive evaluation process.

Winners of the 2024 Kavli Prize:

Field	Winners	Contributions
Astrophysics	David Charbonneau (Harvard University), Sara Seager (Massachusetts Institute of Technology)	Pioneering methods for detecting atomic species in planetary atmospheres and measuring their thermal infrared emission, are crucial for identifying molecular fingerprints in atmospheres of exoplanets.
Nanoscience	Robert Langer (MIT), Armand Paul Alivisatos (University of Chicago), Chad Mirkin (Northwestern University)	Langer: Nano-engineering for controlled drug delivery systems. Alivisatos: Development of semiconductor quantum dots for bio-imaging. Mirkin: Concept of spherical nucleic acids (SNAs) for applications in gene regulation and immunotherapy.
Neuroscience	Nancy Kanwisher (MIT), Winrich Freiwald (Rockefeller University), Doris Tsao (University of California, Berkeley)	Mapping brain functions related to facial recognition using neuroimaging and neuronal recording techniques, identifying brain centers and neural architectures involved in face processing.

PYQ:

[2021] The Nobel Prize in Physics of 2014 was jointly awarded to Akasaki, Amano and Nakamura for the invention of Blue LEDs in the 1990s. How has this invention impacted the everyday life of human beings?

[2018] Discuss the work of ‘Bose-Einstein Statistics’ done by Prof. Satyendra Nath Bose and show how it revolutionized the field of Physics.

[2008] Nobel Prize-winning scientist James D. Watson is known for his work in which area? (2008)

(a) Metallurgy

(b) Meteorology

(d) Genetics

June 14, 2024

Longitude Prize on Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)

Why in the News?

Sysmex Astrego, a Sweden-based diagnostic company, won the £10 million Longitude Prize for developing a high-tech UTI (Urinary Tract Infection) test called the PA-100 AST System.

What is Antimicrobial Resistance?

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change so that medicines no longer work against them.
This makes infections harder to treat and can lead to more severe illness and even death.
AMR can occur naturally through genetic changes or when one type of microorganism picks up resistance from another.
It can also occur randomly due to mutations or when resistant genes spread between different organisms.
The main reasons for AMR are antibiotics incorrectly or too often, not having access to clean water and good hygiene, not doing enough to prevent infections, and people not knowing how to use antibiotics properly.

Global Impact of AMR

Global Threat: Antibiotic-resistant infections caused nearly 1.3 million deaths in 2019, with projections to exceed cancer-related deaths by 2050.
Economic Impact: The global economy faces potential losses of up to 4 trillion by 2030 and 100 trillion by 2050 due to the AMR crisis.

About the Longitude Prize

The Longitude Prize, valued at £8 million (₹85 crore), was recently awarded for its profound implications in combating antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
The prize launched in 2014, aims to revolutionize infection management globally.
Historical Context:
- Origins: Established in 1714 to solve the maritime longitude problem, demonstrating the critical need for accurate navigation.
- Modern Application: The 21st-century Longitude Prize addresses pressing global challenges like AMR, incentivizing innovative solutions.
Goal of the Prize:
- Aims to replace current lab-based diagnostic methods with rapid tests that guide targeted antibiotic therapies, combating AMR effectively.

About PA-100 AST System

Technology Breakthrough: Developed by Sysmex Astrego, this system uses a phenotypic test that identifies UTI bacteria and performs antibiotic susceptibility testing in under 45 minutes.
Operation: A single-use cartridge processes less than half a milliliter of urine, using microfluidic traps and phase-contrast imaging in a shoe box-sized reader instrument.
Clinical Impact: Provides rapid “sensitive” or “resistant” results for antibiotics, aiding doctors in immediate, accurate treatment decisions at the point of care.

Current Challenges in UTI Diagnosis

Limited Accuracy: Current options include urine dipstick tests for quick results but limited accuracy (50-60%) and lab cultures with 2-3 day turnaround times.
Impact on Treatment: Delayed diagnosis often leads to empirical antibiotic use, contributing to antibiotic resistance worldwide.

Significance for India

Healthcare Burden: In India, millions seek treatment for UTIs annually, impacting lives and healthcare systems significantly.
Potential: Rapid, accurate point-of-care tests could revolutionize UTI management globally, saving lives and reducing healthcare costs.

PYQ:

[2014] Can overuse and free availability of antibiotics without a Doctor’s prescription be contributors to the emergence of drug-resistant diseases in India? What are the available mechanisms for monitoring and control? Critically discuss the various issues involved.

[2019] Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India?

Genetic predisposition of some people
Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases
Using antibiotics in livestock farming
Multiple chronic diseases in some people

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4

June 14, 2024

Scientists back new Alzheimer’s drug: Benefits vs Risks

Why in the News?

Donanemab, a new Alzheimer’s disease therapy developed by Eli Lilly, has gained unanimous support from independent scientists advising the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), moving it closer to clinical use.

What is Donanemab?

Donanemab is a monoclonal antibody, which means it is a laboratory-produced molecule designed to function like antibodies in the immune system.
It is specifically developed for individuals in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease, including those with mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia.

How Does Donanemab Work?

It targets amyloid beta proteins in the brain. Amyloid beta plaques are one of the defining features of Alzheimer’s disease.
Mechanism of Action: The drug binds to amyloid beta plaques and promotes their removal from the brain. This action is intended to slow down the progression of Alzheimer’s disease by reducing the accumulation of these toxic plaques.

How do the benefits of the drug stack up against its risks?

Target Population: The drug is intended for those in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease (mild cognitive impairment or mild dementia).
Benefits: Significant clinically meaningful slowing of the disease, allowing patients to retain their functions for a longer time. Phase 3 study shows a 35.1% slowdown in cognitive decline in early Alzheimer’s patients over 76 weeks.
Risks: Main adverse effects include brain swelling (24%) and brain bleeds (19.7%), with most cases being asymptomatic.Three treatment-related deaths reported.Amyloid-related imaging abnormalities (ARIA) like brain bleeds and seizures were mostly non-serious and resolved after discontinuation of therapy.
Risk Management: The key risks can be mitigated through appropriate labeling and clinical monitoring. Further risks will be characterized through post-authorization studies.

Why is a breakthrough of this kind important?

Rising Burden of Alzheimer’s: The global population is ageing, leading to an increased burden of diseases like Alzheimer’s. In India, 5.3 million people are currently living with dementia, expected to rise to 14 million by 2050.
Lack of Effective Treatments: There are limited options for disease-modifying treatments for Alzheimer’s. Innovations like donanemab are crucial for providing new hope and potential therapies.
Economic Considerations: While the drug is expensive, it offers the potential for several more years of quality life for patients.

Why was the approval for the drug delayed?

Additional Data Requirements: The USFDA wanted to understand further the data relating to the therapy, especially regarding the limited dosing protocol used during trials.
Limited Dosing Protocol: During the trial, therapy was stopped in patients who achieved a certain level of amyloid beta plaque clearance, which is a distinguishing feature of donanemab compared to other therapies.
Previous Drug Approval Irregularities: Scrutiny increased after irregularities were found in the approval process of the first drug, aducanumab, which involved close collaboration between the regulator and the drugmaker and approval despite negative trial outcomes. The second drug, lecanemab, also had cautious optimism from doctors due to its demonstrated efficacy with fewer side effects.

Conclusion: Ensure rigorous and transparent review processes for new Alzheimer’s treatments, incorporating comprehensive data analysis and post-authorization studies to monitor long-term safety and efficacy.

Mains PYQ:

Q Stem cell therapy is gaining popularity in India to treat a wide variety of medical conditions including leukaemia, Thalassemia, damaged cornea and several burns. Describe briefly what stem cell therapy is and what advantages it has over other treatments? (UPSC IAS/2017)

June 13, 2024

Why heatwaves have not been included as a notified disaster in the Disaster Management Act?

Why in the news?

The current period of intense heat in several regions has once more sparked debates about the potential inclusion of heatwaves as officially recognized disasters under the Disaster Management (DM) Act of 2005.

What are Notified Disasters?

According to the Disaster Management (DM) Act, 2005, a disaster is defined as a “catastrophe, mishap, calamity, or grave occurrence” arising from natural or man-made causes that result in substantial loss of life, destruction of property, or environmental damage and is beyond the coping capacity of the affected community.
Funds: The DM Act allows states to draw money from the National Disaster Response Fund (NDRF) and the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) for managing these disasters.
Current Notified Disasters: There are currently 12 categories of notified disasters: cyclones, drought, earthquake, fire, flood, tsunamis, hailstorms, landslides, avalanches, cloudbursts, pest attacks, and frost and cold waves.

Why Heatwaves Were Not Included as Notified Disasters?

Common Occurrence: Heatwaves were historically considered regular events during summer months in many parts of India. They were not seen as exceptional or unusual disasters warranting specific disaster management provisions under the DM Act, 2005.
Perception of Predictability: Unlike sudden-onset disasters such as earthquakes or cyclones, heatwaves were perceived as relatively predictable and part of seasonal weather patterns. This perception led to a belief that they could be managed through general public awareness and local interventions rather than formal disaster response mechanisms.
Not fit in definition of Disaster: When the DM Act was formulated, disasters were defined as events that caused substantial loss of life, property, or environmental damage beyond the coping capacity of the affected community. At that time, the impacts of heatwaves were typically viewed as localized health issues rather than widespread disasters.
Lack of Urgency: There was a lack of urgency in recognizing heatwaves as disasters requiring national-level response frameworks. The focus of disaster management efforts initially leaned towards more acute and visible calamities like cyclones, floods, and earthquakes.

Why is the Centre Not Adding Heatwaves as a Notified Disaster Now?

Financial Concerns: One of the primary concerns is the potential financial burden of declaring heat waves as a notified disaster. Under the current provisions, the government is obligated to provide monetary compensation for lives lost during notified disasters, which is set at Rs 4 lakh per victim.
The reluctance of Finance Commissions: Despite requests from various states, the 15th Finance Commission has not recommended adding heatwaves to the list of notified disasters. They argue that the existing categories adequately cover disaster response needs, and they have provided provisions for states to utilize a portion of the State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) for local disasters like heatwaves.

Conclusion: Engage with the Finance Commission and other relevant bodies to reassess the inclusion of heatwaves as a notified disaster. Highlight the evolving nature of heat waves, their increasing frequency, and the need for dedicated funding and support mechanisms.

Mains PYQ:

Q Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)

June 13, 2024

Lal Crater on Mars

Why in the News?

Scientists from Ahmedabad-based Physical Research Laboratory (PRL) have identified three new craters on Mars, situated in the Tharsis volcanic region around 21.0 S, 209 W.
- The International Astronomical Union (IAU) Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature approved the naming of the three craters on Mars, based on PRL’s recommendation.

Back2Basics: International Astronomical Union (IAU)

The IAU was founded on July 28, 1919, during the Constitutive Assembly held in Brussels, Belgium.
Its creation was prompted by the need for international collaboration in astronomy, especially after the devastation caused by World War I.
It aims to promote and safeguard astronomy in all its aspects through international cooperation.
IAU is now headquartered in Paris, France.

Major Activities and Initiatives

General Assembly: The IAU holds a general assembly every three years in varying parts of the world at which professional astronomers meet to discuss research, new cooperative ventures, and similar matters of professional interest.
Astronomical Nomenclature: IAU standardises the nomenclature of celestial bodies, features, and phenomena. It maintains several working groups dedicated to naming conventions for stars, planets, asteroids, and other objects.
Research and Collaboration: It promotes international cooperation in astronomical research and supports initiatives such as observational campaigns, data sharing, and joint projects.
Education and Outreach: It is actively involved in promoting astronomy education and public outreach efforts worldwide. It supports educational programs, workshops, and resources for students, teachers, and the general public.

Membership

IAU membership spans 92 countries. Out of those countries, 85 are National Members.
India is represented by the Astronomical Society of India (ASI).
Its members are professional astronomers from all over the world, at the D. level and beyond, who are active in professional research, education, and outreach in astronomy.

Crater Names and Significance

Lal Crater: Named after Prof. Devendra Lal, former director of PRL, this 65 km wide crater is positioned at -20.98° and 209.34°.
Mursan Crater: Named after a town in Uttar Pradesh, India, this ~10 km wide crater is situated on the eastern side of the Lal crater’s rim.
Hilsa Crater: Named after a town in Bihar, India, this ~10 km wide crater is positioned on the western side of the Lal crater’s rim.

Scientific Importance of Lal Crater

Lava Coverage: The entire Lal crater area, located in the Tharsis volcanic region on Mars, is covered with lava.
Evidence of Water: Geophysical evidence, including a 45-meter thick sedimentary deposit, suggests the presence of water in the subsurface of the Lal crater. This finding supports the theory that Mars once had water flowing on its surface.
Infilling Process: Mursan and Hilsa craters, positioned on either side of the Lal crater, offer insights into the infilling process of the Lal crater. Their presence indicates that infilling occurred episodically over time.

India’s 2nd Quest for Mars

The ISRO is expected to launch Mangalyaan-2, or Mars Orbiter Mission 2 (MOM 2), in 2025.
The mission will last one year and is aimed at studying the Red Planet.
The successor to Mangalyaan-1, or Mars Orbiter Mission 1 (MOM 1), Mangalyaan-2 will consist of only one orbiter and will be launched atop a GSLV Mark III rocket from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.

Other missions to Mars

ExoMars rover (2022): European Space Agency’s mission to explore Mars.
Tianwen-1 (2021): China’s Mars Mission aims to explore and study the Martian surface.
UAE’s Hope Mars Mission (2021): UAE’s first interplanetary mission focused on studying the Martian atmosphere.
NASA’s Mars Insight (2018): A lander designed to study the interior of Mars.
NASA’s Curiosity (2012) and Perseverance (2020): Rovers exploring the Martian surface.
NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (2005), Mars Odyssey (2001), and MAVEN (2013): Orbiters studying Mars from space.
Mars 2 and Mars 3 (1971): Soviet Union’s missions to Mars, which included orbiter and lander components.

PYQ:

[2016] The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO

is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission.
made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA
made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit Mars in its very first attempt.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

June 13, 2024

India is the World’s Second Largest emitter of Nitrous Oxide

Why in the News?

India ranks as the world’s second-largest contributor (after China) to nitrous oxide (N2O), a potent greenhouse gas (GHG), accounting for approximately 11% of global man-made emissions in 2020 as per data published in the journal Earth System Science Data.
- The top five country emitters by volume of anthropogenic N2O emissions in 2020 were China (16.7%), India (10.9%), the United States (5.7%), Brazil (5.3%), and Russia (4.6%).

About Nitrous Oxide

Nitrous oxide (N2O), a colourless and odourless gas, is a potent greenhouse gas, 300 times more powerful than CO2. Despite its small atmospheric fraction, it ranks third in concentration after CO2 and methane (CH4). It’s a crucial target for environmental research and efforts to mitigate climate change impacts.

Sources of Emission:

Natural Sources: N2O is naturally produced in processes such as microbial nitrogen cycling in soil and water bodies, volcanic activity, and biomass burning.
Anthropogenic Activities: Human activities significantly contribute to N2O emissions, with the primary sources being:

Agricultural practices, including the use of nitrogen-based fertilizers and animal manure.
Industrial processes such as combustion of fossil fuels and wastewater treatment.
Combustion of biomass and waste.
Use of nitrous oxide in medical and dental procedures (as a sedative) and in food packaging.

Impact on Climate Change:

Greenhouse Gas: N2O is a potent greenhouse gas with a global warming potential (GWP) much higher than that of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Ozone Depletion: In addition to its role in climate change, N2O also contributes to ozone depletion in the stratosphere, further exacerbating environmental concerns.

Environmental and Health Effects:

Environmental Pollution: N2O emissions can lead to pollution of soil, water bodies, and air, affecting ecosystems and human health.
Health Risks: While N2O is relatively non-toxic at ambient levels, prolonged exposure or high concentrations can pose health risks, including respiratory issues and neurological effects.

Global Nitrous Oxide Emissions

Atmospheric Concentration: The concentration of atmospheric N2O reached 336 parts per billion in 2022, about 25% above pre-industrial levels.
Next to Carbon Emissions: In comparison, the concentration of carbon dioxide was 417 parts per million in 2022.
Persistent Lifespan: Once emitted, N2O stays in the atmosphere for longer than the average human lifespan (117 years), making its climate and ozone impacts long-lived.
Contribution to Climate Change: These emissions are responsible for 6.4% of the effective radiative forcing of greenhouse gases and have added about 0.1°C to current global warming.
Impact of Nitrogen Fertilizers: N2O emissions from human activities have increased by 40% in the past four decades, with agricultural production using nitrogen fertilizers and animal manure contributing 74% of total anthropogenic N2O emissions in the last decade.

Call for Action and Future Outlook

Scientists warn that anthropogenic N2O emissions must decline by at least 20% relative to 2019 levels by 2050 to align with net-zero emission pathways consistent with the Paris Agreement.
Nitrogen fertilizers, which are heavily subsidized in India, contribute significantly to N2O emissions. Urgent reforms are needed to promote alternative production systems and mitigate emissions.

India’s Policy Initiatives to Curb Nitrogen Pollution

Nutrient-Based Subsidy (NBS) (2010): This policy encourages the adoption of controlled-release fertilizers to enhance nutrient management efficiency.
Soil Health Cards (2015): Provided to farmers, these cards offer insights into soil nutrient levels and tailored fertilizer recommendations, promoting balanced nutrient application.
Bharat Stage (BS VI) Emission Standards (2016): These stringent regulations for vehicles and industries aim to reduce the emission of nitrogen oxides and particulate matter, thereby mitigating air and water pollution.
Nano Urea (2021): Marketed by the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), Nano Urea is a patented fertilizer approved for commercial use, designed to curb excessive and indiscriminate conventional urea use while boosting crop yields.

PYQ:

[2016] Why does the Government of India promote the use of ‘Neem-coated Urea’ in agriculture?

(a) Release of Neem oil in the soil increases nitrogen fixation by the soil microorganisms

(b) Neem coating slows down the rate of dissolution of urea in the soil

(d) It is a combination of a weedicide and a fertilizer for particular crops

June 13, 2024

N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8: Advancements in HIV Vaccine Development

Why in the News?

Researchers at the Duke Human Vaccine Institute have successfully induced broadly neutralising antibodies (bNAbs) against HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) through vaccination for the first time.

About HIV/AIDS:

Emergence: The first cases of AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) were reported in the early 1980s, primarily among gay men in the United States.
Discovery of HIV: In 1983-1984, scientists identified HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) as the cause of AIDS.
Global Spread: HIV/AIDS quickly became a global pandemic, affecting millions of people worldwide.

Causes:

HIV is transmitted through contact with certain body fluids of an infected person, including blood, semen, vaginal fluids, and breast milk.
Common modes of HIV transmission include unprotected sexual intercourse, sharing needles or syringes, and from mother to child during pregnancy, childbirth, or breastfeeding.

Symptoms:

Acute HIV Infection: Many people experience flu-like symptoms, such as fever, headache, fatigue, and swollen lymph nodes, within 2-4 weeks after infection.
Asymptomatic Stage: After the initial symptoms subside, HIV often enters a latent stage where individuals may not experience any symptoms for years.
Progression to AIDS: Without treatment, HIV gradually weakens the immune system, leading to the development of opportunistic infections and cancers. This advanced stage is known as AIDS and is characterized by severe immune deficiency.

Vaccines Development:

Challenges: Developing an HIV vaccine has been challenging due to the virus’s ability to mutate rapidly and evade the immune system.
Vaccine Candidates: Numerous vaccine candidates have been tested over the years, but none have yet been successful in providing robust protection against HIV infection.
Hope for the Future: Despite setbacks, advances in vaccine development, such as the identification of promising candidates like N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8, offer hope for eventually achieving an effective HIV vaccine.

How B cells and mRNA play distinct roles in the context of HIV infection?

1. B cells (B lymphocytes):

B cells are a type of white blood cell crucial for the immune response.
In HIV infection, B cells participate in the adaptive immune response by producing antibodies specific to HIV antigens.
These antibodies can neutralize HIV particles, tag infected cells for destruction by other immune cells, and contribute to the immune memory against HIV.

2. mRNA (messenger RNA):

mRNA is a molecule that carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized.
In the context of HIV, mRNA is involved in the replication process of the virus.
HIV uses its RNA genome to produce viral mRNA, which directs the synthesis of viral proteins necessary for the assembly of new virus particles.
Understanding HIV mRNA is crucial for developing antiviral therapies that target viral replication, such as mRNA-based vaccines or mRNA inhibitors.

N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8: The New Vaccines in Making

N332-GT5: This vaccine candidate targets a specific region on the surface of the HIV virus known as the N332 glycan site. By engaging B-cells that have the potential to produce bNAbs against this site, N332-GT5 aims to stimulate the immune system to generate a protective response against a wide range of HIV strains.
eOD-GT8: Similarly, eOD-GT8 is designed to target another region on the HIV virus, known as the eOD protein. By leveraging nanoparticles as carriers, eOD-GT8 aims to enhance the immune system’s ability to recognize and neutralize HIV, ultimately leading to the production of bNAbs.

What are Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies (bNAbs)?

In the 1990s, scientists discovered that some HIV-infected individuals produced bNAbs, which neutralize many viral strains.
bNAbs target viral protein areas crucial for infectivity, making them less likely to change.
Despite their effectiveness, bNAbs take years to develop, by which time HIV has often evolved to escape them.

Developing bNAb-Based Vaccines

The goal is to make the immune system produce bNAbs quickly in response to a vaccine.
Germline targeting involves three steps:
1. Identify and engage B-cells capable of producing bNAbs.
2. Use a booster to guide these cells to produce stronger bNAbs.
3. Refine bNAbs to neutralize a wide range of HIV strains.

PYQ:

[2013] Which of the following diseases can be transmitted from one person to another through tattooing?

1. Chikungunya

2. Hepatitis B

3. HIV-AIDS

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

June 13, 2024