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GS Paper: GS1-07.Role of women and women’s organization, population and associated issues, poverty and developmental issues.

  • Registrar General notifies 40 questions for Phase 2 population enumeration of Census 2027 with 13 new questions and web based self enumeration

    Why in the News

    The Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India notified 40 questions on 14 August for Population Enumeration, the second phase of Census 2027. The expansion from the 29 questions of Census 2011 to 40, including identity document numbers and the place of COVID-19 vaccination, has shifted the debate from how India counts its people to how much personal information a census may record.

    What is the Population Enumeration phase of the Census?

    1. About: It is the second and principal phase of the census, in which every individual present in a household is recorded with their demographic, social and economic particulars.
    2. What precedes it: The first phase, House Listing Operations, records buildings, households and household amenities rather than persons.
    3. Reference date: Every entry relates to a fixed reference moment, so that a person is counted once and only once across the country.
    4. Method of collection: Enumerators canvass each household with a schedule of notified questions, supplemented in this round by a web portal.
    5. Who notifies the questions: The Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India notifies the questionnaire after several rounds of consultation with all ministries.

    What is House Listing Operations?

    1. About: It is the first phase of the census, which lists every building and every household and records the amenities and assets each household holds.
    2. When it was held: For Census 2027 it was conducted from April 2026, and self enumeration was offered before it in June.

    What is the extended de facto method of enumeration?

    1. About: Under this method every person present at a location during the enumeration period is counted at that location, whether or not it is their permanent home.
    2. Why it is used: It prevents both the omission of the homeless and mobile and the double counting of persons who have moved between the two phases.

    What is self enumeration?

    1. About: It allows a household to fill in its own census schedule on an official web portal instead of waiting for an enumerator.
    2. How it is secured: The option is georeferenced, so access is restricted to devices located within the notified area for which it has been opened.

    What changes in the Census 2027 questionnaire?

    1. Total questions: The Population Enumeration schedule carries 40 questions, against 29 questions in the Census 2011 schedule.
    2. New additions: 13 new questions appear that were not part of the 2011 questionnaire.
    3. Family and identity fields: The new set records the spouse’s name, nationality, the particulars of the father and mother, and the permanent address.
    4. Document fields: It records the passport, driving licence, mobile number, Aadhaar number and voter identity number, in each case only if available.
    5. Access and asset fields: It records digital literacy and the number of bank accounts an individual holds.
    6. Health field: It records the place of COVID-19 vaccination.
    7. Caste enumeration: The Population Census will separately enumerate caste, alongside these new data fields.

    What rationale and what safeguards accompany the new data fields?

    1. How the questions were settled: The questions were decided after several rounds of discussion with all ministries, each seeking data for its own planning use.
    2. Only government issued documents: The identity documents sought, meaning Aadhaar, voter identity card, driving licence and passport, are all issued by the government itself.
    3. No account details: Enumerators will record only the number of bank accounts an individual holds, not the account details.
    4. Availability condition: Respondents provide these particulars subject to availability, so absence of a document does not obstruct enumeration.
    5. Statutory confidentiality: All data collected is confidential under the Census Act, 1948.
    6. Practical advice to households: Respondents should write their details down on paper before an enumerator arrives, since 40 questions take longer to answer.
    7. Fraud warning: Fraudsters may seek information in the name of the census, and enumerators carry QR code enabled identity cards whose credentials can be verified.

    How will self enumeration operate in Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh?

    1. Coverage: The option opens for the entire Union Territory of Ladakh and for the snow bound areas of 16 districts of Jammu and Kashmir.
    2. Sequence of operations: The web portal opens on 17 August, and door to door enumeration begins on 1 September.
    3. Geographic restriction: The option is georeferenced and available only within the snow bound areas themselves.
    4. Effect of that restriction: A resident of a snow bound area such as Gurez who is currently in the plains cannot access the portal.
    5. Uptake in the first phase: More than 6.67 lakh households in Jammu and Kashmir and 7,009 households in Ladakh voluntarily completed self enumeration before House Listing Operations in June.
    6. Counting rule applied: Under the extended de facto pattern, everyone present at a location will be counted there.

    Why does Census 2027 carry particular significance for the two Union Territories?

    1. First count after the constitutional change: It will provide the first comprehensive demographic picture of Jammu and Kashmir after the abrogation of Article 370.
    2. First count of a new Union Territory: It will be the first Census of Ladakh as a Union Territory.
    3. Length of the gap: It updates population figures after a gap of more than a decade.
    4. Range of data generated: It will generate data on population distribution, migration, age structure, housing, education, employment, fertility, disability and social composition.
    5. Administrative use: That data feeds planning and resource allocation for two administrations without a recent baseline.
    6. Why geography is the focus: Demographic realities vary sharply across urban centres, border districts, remote mountain villages and tribal areas, so the census aims to capture where people live, how they live and how those patterns are changing.

    What makes enumeration in these two Union Territories difficult?

    1. Dispersed settlement in Jammu and Kashmir: The population is spread across cities, villages, mountainous regions, border areas and tribal habitations.
    2. Seasonal migration: Movement between summer and winter settlements complicates the fixing of a household’s location.
    3. Altitude and terrain in Ladakh: The population lives across a vast high altitude region marked by dispersed settlements.
    4. Connectivity and access: Difficult connectivity, seasonal accessibility and remote locations restrict when and how enumerators can reach households.
    5. The accuracy requirement: The exercise must capture not only headcount but the way population distribution varies across these terrains.

    How will nomadic and displaced populations be counted?

    1. Inter departmental coordination: Special coordination with the departments dealing with forests, tribal affairs and local administration will identify migratory routes and seasonal settlements.
    2. Nomadic communities: The routes and seasonal settlements of the Gujjar-Bakarwals and other nomadic groups will be mapped before enumeration.
    3. The stated objective: Mobility must not translate into undercounting.
    4. Displaced communities: Kashmiri Pandits will be recorded according to established Census concepts and reference dates.
    5. What is captured for them: Their migration history and household characteristics will be recorded alongside the standard schedule.

    Challenges to Census 2027

    1. Undercounting of mobile populations: Pastoral and migrant groups move between the reference date and the enumeration window. e.g. Gujjar-Bakarwal families move to high altitude summer pastures in the Pir Panjal and Ladakh ranges precisely during the enumeration months.
    2. Privacy exposure from identity fields: Recording Aadhaar, voter identity, passport and mobile numbers against a household creates a re identification risk if any downstream database is compromised. e.g. successive breaches of health and telecom databases in India have shown how linked identifiers enable profiling.
    3. Impersonation and cyber fraud: The census provides cover for fraudsters seeking financial credentials. e.g. callers posing as enumerators have previously sought Aadhaar and bank details during welfare verification drives.
    4. Enumerator capacity and quality: Enumeration is done by government employees deployed on top of their regular duties. e.g. schoolteachers form the bulk of enumerators, which interrupts academic schedules and limits training time.
    5. Digital divide in self enumeration: The portal presumes a smartphone, connectivity and literacy in the interface language. e.g. snow bound districts of Jammu and Kashmir carry among the lowest mobile internet reliability in the country.
    6. Delay in the decennial cycle distorts planning: Entitlements calculated on outdated population figures under count beneficiaries. e.g. National Food Security Act, 2013 coverage has continued to use Census 2011 population figures despite population growth since.
    7. Caste enumeration classification: Recording caste requires a settled list of categories and spellings across states. e.g. the 1931 Census recorded over 4,000 caste entries, and Bihar’s 2023 state survey used a far shorter list of 214 categories.

    Conclusion

    Population Enumeration begins on 17 August in Ladakh and the snow bound areas of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand and runs till 30 September, ahead of the rest of the country, which will be enumerated in February 2027. Self enumeration on the web portal opens the same day, and door to door enumeration in these areas begins on 1 September. The exercise will produce the first full demographic account of Jammu and Kashmir since the constitutional change of 2019 and the first Census of Ladakh as a Union Territory.

    The Census in India

    1. About: The census is the complete enumeration of every person in the country at a fixed reference moment, together with their demographic, social and economic characteristics.
    2. Administering body: The Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India, set up in 1961, functions under the Ministry of Home Affairs and conducts the census, the Civil Registration System and the Sample Registration System.
    3. Two phase structure: Every census is conducted in two phases, House Listing Operations followed by Population Enumeration.
    4. Scale: It is the largest peacetime administrative exercise in the world, deploying around 34 lakh enumerators and supervisors to cover more than 1.4 billion people.
    5. Historical continuity: India has conducted a census every ten years since 1881 without interruption until the 2021 round was postponed.
    6. What is new in 2027: Census 2027 will be the first digital census, using a mobile application and a self enumeration portal, and the first to enumerate caste since 1931.
    7. Why the numbers matter: Census figures determine delimitation of constituencies, the population criterion in the Finance Commission’s devolution formula, reservation of seats, and the coverage of welfare entitlements.

    Constitutional Provisions Related to the Census

    1. Entry 69, Union List, Seventh Schedule: Places census exclusively within the legislative competence of Parliament.
    2. Article 246: Distributes legislative power between the Union and the States across the three Lists, which is what makes Entry 69 a Union subject.
    3. Article 81: Fixes the composition of the Lok Sabha and requires seats to be allotted to States in proportion to population.
    4. Article 82: Requires readjustment of the allocation of Lok Sabha seats and the division of States into constituencies after every census.
    5. Article 170: Requires the same readjustment for State Legislative Assemblies after every census.
    6. Article 55: Uses population figures in computing the value of votes in the presidential electoral college, with the 84th Amendment fixing the 1971 figures for this purpose.
    7. Articles 330 and 332: Base the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies on their population share.
    8. Articles 243D and 243T: Base reservation of seats in panchayats and municipalities on population proportions drawn from census data.

    Laws and Rules Governing the Census

    1. Census Act, 1948: Provides the legal authority to conduct a census, appoint census officers and require the public to answer questions.
    2. Section 8: Places a legal obligation on every occupier and every person to answer census questions truthfully.
    3. Section 15: Makes census records confidential, not open to inspection and inadmissible as evidence in any legal proceeding, so an individual’s return cannot be used against them.
    4. Census Rules, 1990: Lay down the procedural framework for appointment of census staff, canvassing and record keeping.
    5. Registration of Births and Deaths Act, 1969: Establishes the Civil Registration System administered by the same Registrar General, which supplies continuous vital statistics between censuses.
    6. Citizenship Act, 1955 and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003: Provide for the National Population Register, a separate register of usual residents, distinct in law from the census.
    7. Collection of Statistics Act, 2008: Governs other official statistical collections and their confidentiality obligations.

    Back2Basics: Census Act, 1948

    1. Enactment: Passed in 1948 and extending to the whole of India, it is the permanent statutory basis for every decennial census.
    2. Trigger: The Central Government notifies its intention to take a census, and the dates, through a gazette notification.
    3. Machinery: It provides for the appointment of a Census Commissioner, Directors of Census Operations, and census officers down to the enumerator level, with defined powers to ask questions.
    4. Public obligation: Every person is legally bound to answer the questions put to them truthfully, and refusal or a false answer is punishable.
    5. Confidentiality guarantee: Individual records are not open to public inspection and are inadmissible as evidence, so census data cannot be used for enforcement against any individual.
    6. Penalties: The Act penalises both a census officer who discloses information and a respondent who gives a false answer.
    7. Nature of the data: Only aggregated statistical tables are published, never individual returns.

    Government Initiatives Related to Population Data

    1. Census 2027 digital application and monitoring portal: Enumeration, supervision and data validation move to a mobile application backed by a central management and monitoring system, replacing paper schedules.
    2. Self Enumeration portal: Allows households to complete their own census schedule online, with georeferencing to restrict access to the notified area.
    3. National Population Register: A register of usual residents maintained under the Citizenship Act, 1955, first prepared alongside the 2011 House Listing phase and updated in 2015.
    4. Civil Registration System: Continuous compulsory registration of births and deaths under the 1969 Act, providing vital statistics between census years.
    5. Sample Registration System: A large scale sample survey run by the Registrar General that generates annual birth rate, death rate and infant mortality estimates.
    6. National Family Health Survey: Conducted under the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, it supplies fertility, nutrition and health indicators that complement census counts.
    7. Census data portals: Census tables are published for public use through the official census portal and the National Data and Analytics Platform.

    Key Facts about the Census

    1. The first census in India was conducted in 1872 under Lord Mayo, and was non synchronous across provinces.
    2. The first synchronous and complete census was held in 1881 under Lord Ripon, and the decennial series has run from that year.
    3. Census 2011 was the 15th census since 1872 and the 7th after Independence, recording a population of 121.09 crore, a density of 382 persons per square kilometre, a sex ratio of 943 and a literacy rate of 74.04 percent.
    4. Census 2027 will be the 16th census, the first digital census, and the first to enumerate caste since 1931.
    5. The reference date for Census 2027 is 1 March 2027 for most of the country, and 1 October 2026 for snow bound and non synchronous areas.
    6. The Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India was set up in 1961 and works under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
    7. Census figures govern delimitation, which stands frozen under the 84th and 87th Constitutional Amendments until the first census taken after 2026.

    Challenges in Census Taking in India

    1. Disruption of the decennial cycle: A postponed census leaves every population dependent policy working on stale figures. e.g. the 2021 round was deferred and India will have gone sixteen years between full counts.
    2. Undercount of the homeless and of migrants: Persons without a fixed dwelling are systematically missed. e.g. Census 2011 recorded about 17.7 lakh homeless persons, a figure civil society organisations widely regard as an undercount.
    3. Classification difficulties in caste enumeration: Caste names vary by spelling, region and sub group, which makes tabulation contested. e.g. the 1931 Census produced over 4,000 caste entries that could not be aggregated cleanly.
    4. Urban definition problems: Statistical and administrative definitions of urban areas diverge. e.g. census towns satisfy the census definition of urban but continue to be governed by rural panchayats without urban service standards.
    5. Enumerator burden and data quality: Enumerators are serving government staff performing census duty in addition to their jobs. e.g. schoolteachers form the bulk of the enumerator pool, which limits training depth and interrupts teaching.
    6. Data security in a digital census: Digitised individual level records create risks that paper schedules did not. e.g. a mobile application that stores identity numbers requires encryption and access control standards that do not exist in the Census Act, 1948.
    7. Political sensitivity of population figures: Census numbers directly determine seats and money, which makes them contested. e.g. southern States have objected to the use of current population for delimitation on the ground that it penalises successful fertility decline.

    Way Forward

    1. Legislate a data protection layer over census data: Extend explicit statutory protection to digitally stored individual records, since the Census Act, 1948 predates digital collection.
    2. Publish a clear separation between the Census and the National Population Register: State in the notification itself that census returns cannot be transferred to any citizenship or enforcement register.
    3. Expand assisted self enumeration: Provide common service centre and panchayat level assistance so that self enumeration does not exclude those without smartphones.
    4. Build a special enumeration protocol for mobile groups: Fix pastoral and nomadic enumeration to the migration calendar rather than the general schedule.
    5. Restore and legally fix the decennial cycle: Commit to a statutory timetable so that welfare, devolution and delimitation are never based on a sixteen year old count again.
    6. Standardise the caste enumeration schema in advance: Publish a national list of caste categories and their state variants before enumeration begins to make tabulation usable.
    7. Release disaggregated data quickly: Publish primary census abstracts and district level tables within a fixed period after enumeration so that planning use is not delayed further.

    Matching Previous Year Question

    “[2009] Consider the following statements:
    1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.
    2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
    (a) 1 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) Both 1 and 2
    (d) Neither 1 nor 2
    Answer: (d)”

  • Tribal Council says Shompen concerns overlooked in the Great Nicobar Island project

    Why in the News?

    The Tribal Council of Great and Little Nicobar has raised concerns that the Great Nicobar Island (GNI) Project could lead to assimilation and disturbance of the Shompen, a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG).

    What is the GNI Project?

    • Large infrastructure and township project in Great Nicobar.
    • Estimated cost: around ₹91,000 crore.
    • Includes a proposed power plant at Galathea, near Shompen settlements.

    Who are the Shompen?

    • Hunter-gatherer indigenous community.
    • Fewer than 300 members.
    • Recognised as a PVTG.
    • Their isolation makes contact, displacement and forced assimilation particularly sensitive.

    What are PVTGs?

    • PVTG = Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group: Identified based on characteristics such as:
    • Pre-agricultural technology
    • Low literacy
    • Stagnant or declining population
    • Economic backwardness
    • India recognises 75 PVTGs.

    Key Concerns

    • Assimilation: Proposal to shift the Shompen towards a modern lifestyle.
    • Displacement: Concern over possible settlement and relocation.
    • Consent: Questions regarding consultation over wildlife reserves and project decisions.
    • Health risks: Contact with isolated communities can expose them to diseases and other risks.
    • Assurance gap: Earlier assurance stated that the project would not disturb or displace the Shompen.

    Laws Protecting Tribal Rights

    • Forest Rights Act, 2006: Recognises individual and community forest rights.
    • PESA, 1996: Provides self-governance and consent provisions in Scheduled Areas.
    • Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) Regulation, 1956: Restricts entry into tribal reserves.

    Government Initiatives

    • PM-JANMAN: Development of PVTG households and habitations.
    • Development of PVTGs Scheme: Habitat-specific support for 75 PVTGs.

    “[2009] In which one of the following places is the Shompen tribe found?

    (a) Nilgiri Hills

    (b) Nicobar Islands

    (c) Spiti Valley

    (d) Lakshwadeep Islands

  • Women in the Economy: Rising Participation, Low Leadership  

    Why in the News?

    • Female participation in India’s workforce is rising, but representation in leadership roles remains low, raising concerns for inclusive growth.

    Key Trends

    Rising Female Labour Force Participation (LFPR)

    • Female LFPR:
      • 2022: 33.9%
      • 2025: 40%
    • Still below:
      • Global average: 49%
      • Brazil: 53%
      • Vietnam: 69%

    Why Female Participation Matters

    • According to the World Bank: India needs ~8% growth to become developed by 2047
    • Low female participation: Major constraint to growth

    Economic Impact

    • Study (2018): Constituencies with women legislators: +1.8% higher economic performance

    Women in Leadership (Major Concern)

    1. Academia

    • IITs: Female faculty ~14%
    • IIMs: Range: 19% to 31%
    • Professors (India overall): ~29.5%

    2. Business & Corporate Sector

    • Female-owned establishments: ~27%
    • Women in leadership roles: Only 13 women per 100 men

    3. Corporate Boards

    • Many firms: Only 1–2 women directors
    • Women board chairpersons:
      • BSE 200: ~7%
      • NSE 500: ~5%
    • Indicates token representation

    Note: 

    • The BSE 200 is a stock market index on the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) in India, comprising 200 of the largest, most liquid, and highly traded companies across various sectors.
    • The Nifty 500 is a broad-based stock market index representing the top 500 companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India (NSE) based on market capitalization and average daily turnover.
    [2024] Consider the following statements regarding ‘Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam’ : 
    1. Provisions will come into effect from 18th Lok Sabha. 
    2. This will be in force for 15 years after becoming an Act. 
    3. There are provisions for the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes Women within the quota reserved for the Scheduled Castes. 
    Which of the statements given above are correct? 
    [A] 1, 2 and 3 [B] 1 and 2 only [C] 2 and 3 only [D] 1 and 3 only

  • Women’s Economic Opportunity Laws Only Half Enforced Globally

    Why in the News

    The latest Women, Business and the Law report by the World Bank Group finds that laws ensuring women’s economic equality are only about half enforced globally, creating large gaps between legal rights and real world outcomes.

    Key Findings

    • Enforcement Gap

      • Average legal equality score on paper: 67 out of 100
      • Enforcement score: 53 out of 100
      • Implementation systems score: 47 out of 100
      • Even if laws were fully enforced, women would enjoy only about two thirds of men’s legal rights.
    • Limited Full Equality: Only 4 percent of women globally live in economies with near full legal equality.
    • Major Areas of Concern: The report evaluates 10 areas of women’s economic participation:
      • Safety from violence
      • Employment protections
      • Entrepreneurship
      • Access to credit
      • Asset ownership
      • Childcare
      • Retirement security
    • Safety: Only about one third of required safety laws exist, and enforcement fails around 80 percent of the time.
    [2017] Which of the following gives ‘Global Gender Gap Index’ ranking to the countries of the world? (a) World Economic Forum (b) UN Human Rights Council 

    (c) UN Women 

    (d) World Health Organization

  • National Commission for Women marks 34th Foundation Day

    Why in the News?

    The National Commission for Women marked its 34th Foundation Day on 30 January 2026 at Bharat Mandapam, highlighting the link between women’s health and empowerment.

    About National Commission for Women

    • Statutory body constituted under the National Commission for Women Act, 1990
    • Established in 1992
    • Mandate includes safeguarding women’s rights, policy review, legal interventions, and grievance redressal

    Theme of Foundation Day

    • Swasthya hi Sashaktikaran
    • Stresses that women’s health is foundational to empowerment, social equity, and national development
    [2023] Consider the following organizations/bodies in India: 1. The National Commission for Backward Classes 

    2. The National Human Rights Commission 

    3. The National Law Commission 

    4. The National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission 

    How many of the above are constitutional bodies? 

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

  • Are Women deciding Assembly Elections?

    Introduction

    Ahead of the 2025 Bihar elections, parties are intensifying women-focused welfare schemes involving cash transfers. Similar strategies in Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and West Bengal mark a national trend of targeting women voters through direct benefits.

    Also the gender gap in voter turnout has narrowed significantly, with female participation matching or surpassing male turnout in several states, prompting political recognition of women as a distinct electoral constituency.

    Women as a Political Category:

    1. Shift in Political Focus: Women have emerged as a distinct political category, prompting parties to design targeted welfare schemes like Ladli Behna Yojana, Urimai Thogai, and Lakshmir Bhandar aimed exclusively at female voters.
    2. Economic Empowerment through Welfare: Direct cash transfers have provided limited but visible economic agency, allowing women some control over finances within households traditionally dominated by men.
    3. Beneficiary Framing: The portrayal of women primarily as labharthis (beneficiaries) reinforces dependency on state-led welfare rather than promoting them as independent political actors.
    4. Symbolic Inclusion vs. Structural Change: Women’s growing electoral visibility has not necessarily translated into greater representation or leadership, keeping them largely outside decision-making hierarchies.

    How have Political Parties harnessed the Gender Gap in Voter Turnout?

    1. Rise in Female Turnout: Over the last two decades, the gender gap in voter participation has steadily narrowed, with female turnout surpassing male turnout in several states, notably in Bihar and Odisha.
    2. Targeted Welfare Mobilisation: Political parties have strategically used welfare schemes and direct benefit transfers to consolidate women as a reliable voter base, focusing on cash assistance, LPG subsidies, and maternal benefits.
    3. Micro-Targeting: Manifestos and election campaigns increasingly feature women-focused promises, indicating recognition of their collective electoral strength.
    4. Narrative of Care Politics: Political rhetoric frames women as symbols of social welfare and household well-being, enabling parties to blend economic populism with gender outreach.

    Significance of Women’s Voting Behaviour:

    1. Indicator of Political Maturity: The steady rise in women’s participation marks a structural shift in India’s democratic engagement, highlighting growing awareness of rights and entitlements.
    2. Independent Electoral Agency: Increasing evidence shows that women are voting independently of male family influence, prioritising welfare delivery, safety, education, and dignity.
    3. Policy Feedback Mechanism: Women’s responses to welfare schemes serve as a direct feedback loop influencing governance priorities and re-election strategies.
    4. Catalyst for Inclusive Politics: The evolving behaviour of women voters has encouraged parties to incorporate gender equity into mainstream political discourse, beyond token representation.

    Issues of Gendered Voter Turnout:

    1. Documentation Barriers: Women face systemic exclusion from electoral rolls due to inadequate documentation, name changes after marriage, and migration-related bureaucratic lapses.
    2. Procedural Exclusion: Administrative exercises like Special Intensive Revision (SIR) have disproportionately omitted women, reflecting institutional insensitivity to gendered realities.
    3. Intersectional Marginalisation: Women’s political inclusion remains fragmented by caste, class, and religion, preventing the emergence of a cohesive gender-based voting bloc.
    4. Symbolic Empowerment: While parties celebrate women as voters and beneficiaries, practical empowerment remains limited, with persistent underrepresentation in legislatures and party leaderships.

    Way Forward:

    1. Institutional Strengthening: Ensure gender-sensitive voter registration and simplify documentation norms to eliminate procedural exclusions.
    2. Beyond Welfare Politics: Transition from cash-based welfare populism to policies promoting education, employment, and political representation.
    3. Data-Driven Governance: Use disaggregated gender data to assess welfare effectiveness and refine electoral outreach grounded in socio-economic realities.
    4. Leadership and Representation: Expand women’s participation in party structures, local governance, and Parliament, ensuring parity in decision-making roles.
    5. Civic and Political Literacy: Invest in sustained grassroots voter education, enabling women to act as autonomous political citizens rather than electoral dependents.

  • The ‘domestic sphere’ in a new India

    Introduction

    Women in India continue to bear a disproportionate burden within the “domestic sphere,” both through unpaid household labour and through systemic silence around violence inside the home. Even as the government projects slogans like “nari shakti” and “women-led development,” the stark realities of dowry deaths, marital rape, unequal division of work, and undervaluation of women’s unpaid labour reveal deep contradictions. The recent Time Use Survey (TUS) 2024 and other official data bring to light these inequities, while political narratives attempt to glorify them as cultural strengths.

    Why in the News?

    The debate on the “domestic sphere” resurfaced after a controversial statement in August 2025 by RSS chief, who urged families to have at least three children for the “survival of civilisation.” This comment, reducing women to reproduction machines, stands in sharp contrast to the silence of ruling elites on domestic violence, dowry deaths (7,000 annually between 2017–2022), and marital rape. Simultaneously, the TUS 2024 exposed glaring gender disparities in unpaid work: women spend 7 hours daily in domestic services versus men’s 26 minutes. Despite this, the government’s framing celebrated men’s 15 minutes of caregiving as proof of “Indian family values.” This dissonance makes the issue urgent and deeply political.

    Women and Violence Within Homes

    1. Dowry deaths: An average of 7,000 women annually (2017–2022) have died in dowry-related violence, totalling 35,000 lives lost.
    2. Domestic violence: NFHS-5 revealed 30% women reported intimate partner violence, but only 14% lodged police complaints.
    3. Silence of leadership: While majoritarian rhetoric aggressively targets “love jihad,” it remains mute on intra-community domestic crimes, revealing selective morality.

    Historical and Contemporary Debates on Marriage and Gender Rights

    1. Ambedkar vs. orthodoxy: Ambedkar’s Hindu Code Bills sought divorce rights and caste-free marriages; opposed fiercely by conservative forces.
    2. Institution of marriage: Current opposition to criminalising marital rape reflects a continuity of Manusmriti-inspired ideals of sacramental marriage.
    3. Honour crimes: Cultural pressures still compel women to “adjust” in violent marriages, sustaining patriarchal structures.

    Time Use Survey 2024 – Striking Findings

    1. Employment gap: Only 25% of women (15–59 yrs) in employment-related work, compared to 75% men, with women working fewer hours.
    2. Unpaid domestic work: 93% of women spend 7 hours daily; 70% of men do none.
    3. Care work: 41% of women vs. 21% of men engage in unpaid caregiving; men average barely 16 minutes daily.
    4. Total working hours: Women overall work longer hours than men but get less leisure, sleep, and nutrition time.

    Government Narrative vs. Reality

    1. Official glorification: PIB (Feb 25, 2025) framed caregiving as reflecting the “Indian social fabric,” overlooking systemic gender exploitation.
    2. Policy translation: Anganwadi, mid-day meal, and ASHA workers, essentially extending domestic roles into the public sphere, are classified as “volunteers” with honorariums, not wages.
    3. Undervaluation: SBI 2023 study estimated ₹22.5 lakh crore annually (7% of GDP) as the value of women’s unpaid work, which subsidises male wages by reducing subsistence costs.

    Towards an Alternative Approach

    1. Violence-free homes: Stronger social and legal frameworks against domestic violence and marital rape.
    2. Equal right to work: Recognition of men and women as equal primary workers with equal wages.
    3. Public provisioning: State-backed universal childcare, elderly care, quality health and education.
    4. Cultural reform: Move from “adjustment” to shared responsibility in domestic work.
    5. Recognition for scheme workers: Anganwadi, ASHA, mid-day meal staff to receive minimum wages and benefits as government employees.

    Conclusion

    The “domestic sphere” is not a private matter but a deeply political one, shaping both India’s democracy and economy. Unless women’s unpaid work, safety within homes, and dignity are recognised, slogans of empowerment will remain hollow. True nari shakti lies not in numerical glorification of caregiving, but in building a society where women’s labour, both paid and unpaid, receives justice.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] “Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss.

    Linkage: Empowerment of women through education, health access, and economic participation is directly correlated with declining fertility rates, as seen in states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

    When women exercise agency over reproductive choices, population growth transitions from being a demographic challenge to a managed outcome.

    Thus, population stabilisation in India is less about coercive policies and more about gender justice and empowerment-driven development.

  • India slips to 131st position in Global Gender Gap Index, 2025

    Why in the News?

    India has been ranked 131 out of 148 countries in the World Economic Forum’s (WEF) Global Gender Gap Report 2025, falling two places from last year’s rank of 129.

    India slips to 131st position in Global Gender Gap Index, 2025

    About the Global Gender Gap Index:

    • Overview: It is released annually by the World Economic Forum (WEF) and has been published since 2006.
    • Scope of Measurement: It evaluates gender parity across 4 key dimensions:
      1. Economic Participation and Opportunity,
      2. Educational Attainment,
      3. Health and Survival, and
      4. Political Empowerment.
    • Scoring Method: The index uses a 0–1 scale, where 1 represents full gender parity.
    • 2025 Edition Coverage: The 19th edition of the index covers 148 countries, making it a global benchmark for tracking gender gaps.

    Key Highlights of the 2025 Report:

    • India’s Performance: It is ranked 131 out of 148 countries, falling two spots from its 2024 rank of 129.
    • Overall Score: India’s overall gender parity score is 64.1%, placing it among the lowest-ranked in South Asia.
    • Economic Participation: India improved in this category, with the score rising to 40.7%, and estimated earned income parity increasing from 28.6% to 29.9%.
    • Labour Force Participation: India’s rate remains at 45.9%, its highest recorded level.
    • Educational Attainment: The country scored 97.1%, with gains in female literacy and tertiary education enrolment.
    • Health and Survival: This category showed marginal improvement due to a better sex ratio at birth and higher healthy life expectancy.
    • Political Empowerment: India declined in this area, with women in Parliament dropping from 14.7% to 13.8%, and women ministers decreasing from 6.5% to 5.6%.

    Global Trends and Significance:

    • Regional Rankings: The highest rank is held by Bangladesh in South Asia at 24, followed by Bhutan (119), Nepal (125), Sri Lanka (130), Maldives (138), and Pakistan (148).
    • Global Parity Score: The overall global gender gap has narrowed to 68.8%, marking the best progress since the COVID-19 pandemic.
    • Timeline for Equality: At the current pace, it will take 123 years to achieve full gender parity worldwide.
    • Top Performers: Top-rank is retained by Iceland for the 16th consecutive year, followed by Finland, Norway, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand.
    • Leadership Gap: Although women make up 41.2% of the global workforce, they occupy only 28.8% of leadership roles.

    Back2Basics: World Economic Forum (WEF)

    • The WEF is an international non-profit organization founded in 1971 by Klaus Schwab in Geneva, Switzerland.
    • It fosters public-private cooperation to tackle global issues through dialogue, partnerships, and research.
    • WEF is widely known for its annual Davos summit, which brings together world leaders from politics, business, and academia.
    • Major reports published include the Global Competitiveness Report, Global Risks Report, Global Social Mobility Report, Energy Transition Index, and Travel & Tourism Development Index.
    • These reports provide critical data and policy insights on issues like inequality, climate change, innovation, and economic recovery.
    • WEF is largely funded by its partner corporations, offering a platform to shape global agendas across sectors.

     

    [UPSC 2017] Which of the following gives ‘Global Gender Gap Index’ ranking to the countries of the world?

    Options: (a) World Economic Forum* (b) UN Human Rights Council (c) UN Women (d) World Health Organization

     

  • [10th June 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Empowering women in agriculture for food security

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?

    Linkage: Women’s empowerment and the critical need to incorporate gender concerns into programme design and implementation. The article extensively discuss how empowering women in agriculture is fundamental to achieving food security. For instance, the United Nations General Assembly declared 2026 as the International Year of the Woman Farmer to recognize, support, and enhance the role of women in ensuring food security, fostering economic prosperity, and promoting sustainability.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  The United Nations has declared 2026 as the International Year of the Woman Farmer to recognise the important but often overlooked role women play in growing food around the world. Over 100 countries supported this move, which highlights a major issue: while women produce up to 80% of food in developing countries, they are still left out when it comes to owning land. For example, in India, although 80% of working women are in farming, only 14% own land.

     Today’s editorial talks about the problems faced by women farmers, which is an important topic for GS Paper I (women-related issues), GS Paper II (social justice), and GS Paper III (agriculture).

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    The International Year of the Woman Farmer in 2026 should focus on supporting strong, sustainable farming and ensuring equal rights and opportunities for women in agriculture.

    What challenges do women farmers face in land and credit access?

    • Low Land Ownership Limits Entitlements: Despite forming nearly 80% of the economically active female workforce in agriculture, only 14% of landowners in India are women, and just 8.3% according to NFHS data. Eg: A woman working her family’s farmland may still lack legal ownership, preventing her from claiming government subsidies or schemes like PM-KISAN.
    • Difficulty Accessing Credit: Without land titles, women are often denied collateral-based loans from banks and formal financial institutions. Eg: A woman farmer in rural Bihar cannot access a loan for irrigation equipment because she doesn’t hold a land deed, pushing her to rely on informal moneylenders.
    • Inadequate Access to Financial Technology and Information: Women have limited access to mobile phones and agricultural advisories, which are crucial for credit applications and crop planning. Eg: In Assam, women supported by the ENACT project lacked timely access to climate forecasts, making it harder to plan credit usage for flood-resistant crop seeds.

    Why is 2026 declared the International Year of the Woman Farmer?

    • To Recognise Women’s Vital Role in Agriculture: Women contribute to 60–80% of food production in developing countries and nearly 39% of the agricultural labour force in South Asia.  
    • To Raise Awareness About Structural Challenges: The declaration aims to highlight barriers women face such as limited land ownership, market access, and credit availability. Eg: Only 14% of agricultural landowners in India are women, restricting their ability to access loans and government schemes.
    • To Promote Gender Equality and Empowerment: It seeks to promote gender-transformative agricultural development by encouraging inclusive policies, technology access, and self-help group participation. Eg: The ENACT project in Assam supports women farmers by linking them with agri-experts and providing mobile-based advisories to adapt to climate change.

    What is the ENACT project?

    The ENACT project stands for Enhancing Climate Adaptation of Vulnerable Communities through Nature-based Solutions and Gender-Transformative Approaches. Supported by the World Food Programme (WFP), the Government of Assam, and funded by Norway, it empowers women farmers in Nagaon

    How does the ENACT project help women farmers adapt to climate change?

    • Access to Climate-Resilient Agricultural Information: ENACT provides weekly agricultural and climate advisories through mobile phones, enabling informed decision-making. Eg: Over 300 women farmers in 17 villages of Assam’s Nagaon district receive timely updates on weather and crop planning.
    • Promotion of Flood-Resistant Crop Varieties: The project introduces flood-tolerant rice varieties and promotes livelihood diversification to reduce climate-related risks. Eg: In Roha village, new rice varieties introduced by the project can survive underwater, helping farmers secure better yields during floods.
    • Strengthening Institutional and Technical Support: ENACT facilitates collaboration with local institutions, including agri-departments, universities, and meteorological agencies. Eg: Climate Adaptation Information Centres offer video conferencing tools for expert guidance and community meetings.

    What policies support women farmers in India?

    • Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Pariyojana (MKSP): Enhances skills, capacity building, and promotes sustainable agriculture among women farmers. Eg: MKSP supports self-help groups (SHGs) in improving agricultural practices and income generation.
    • Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation: Provides 50% to 80% subsidies on farm machinery and equipment to reduce drudgery and improve productivity. Eg: Women farmers receive subsidised tools for sowing, weeding, and harvesting, enabling more efficient farm operations.
    • National Food Security Mission (NFSM) – Women’s Component: Allocates 30% of the budget for women farmers in select States and Union Territories to improve food production. Eg: Women beneficiaries receive support in seed distribution, training, and input provision under NFSM.

    How does climate change impact women farmers?

    • Increased Domestic Burden and Agricultural Risk: Climate variability forces women to juggle household responsibilities with unpredictable farming conditions. Eg: In Assam, women like Nirmali Bora Hazarika report increased workload due to erratic weather and flood-prone crops.
    • Limited Access to Climate Information and Resources: Women have less access to weather updates, advisory services, and resilient crop technologies. Eg: Many women farmers lack mobile phones or connectivity to receive timely climate advisories.
    • Greater Vulnerability to Crop Loss and Livelihood Disruptions: Floods, droughts, and extreme weather events hit women-led farms harder due to lack of land rights and insurance. Eg: Without land ownership, women cannot claim compensation or loans to recover from climate-induced losses.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Land Rights and Legal Ownership: Governments must promote joint land titles, ensure inheritance rights, and simplify land registration processes for women. Eg: Initiatives like the Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP) can help ensure legal recognition of women’s land ownership.
    • Expand Financial and Technological Access: Strengthen women’s inclusion in formal credit systems, promote mobile-based agricultural advisories, and invest in climate-resilient infrastructure. Eg: Scaling up programs like ENACT can equip women with timely climate information, insurance, and input support.

  • [ 15th April 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Feminism for polarised times

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2019] The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised Nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order”. Elaborate.

    Linkage:  India’s historical role as a voice for the “Global South” and how its current global positioning might be perceived differently. This article argues for the Global South to take a leading role, which resonates with India’s past image.

     

    Mentor’s Comment:   While current talks on delimitation focus on its effect on power-sharing between states and the Centre, another key change depends on it — the rollout of the Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023. The Bill brought gender equality to the forefront of politics. However, this widespread acceptance has, in some ways, made open and critical discussion more difficult. A compassionate, inclusive feminism recognizes both structural and interpersonal challenges women face. It avoids oversimplifying gender struggles, respects men’s societal pressures, and promotes solidarity. 

    Today’s editorial discusses issues related to feminism. This content will be useful for GS Paper I in the Mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    A more compassionate approach to feminism could be the right strategy right now, as it helps gain support rather than create resistance.

    Why is there a caution against applying a heavy structural lens to interpersonal relationships?

    • Complexity of Relationships: Interpersonal relationships are multifaceted and often not reducible to power dynamics or oppression. Eg: A husband may expect dinner but also contribute financially, which shows mutual care rather than domination.
    • Risk of Oversimplification: Applying the structural lens too heavily risks oversimplifying relationships, reducing them to battles for power. Eg: A disagreement over household chores might be seen as oppressive when it could be a negotiation of responsibilities.
    • Love and Care Are Often Present: Many relationships are underpinned by love, care, and mutual respect, which should not be ignored in the analysis. Eg: A father who supports his daughter’s education despite societal barriers demonstrates care beyond structural oppression.
    • Men’s Experiences and Contributions: Men also face societal pressures, including financial and emotional burdens, which can reshape family dynamics. Eg: A man who works long hours in difficult conditions to support his family might experience public humiliation, while his wife remains insulated from such public pressures.
    • Potential for Alienation: Focusing solely on structural analysis may alienate people, particularly those who feel embattled, like many men. Eg: Men who feel misunderstood in feminist discourse, especially those at the margins, may disengage from efforts for equality.

    How can feminist discourse become more inclusive and compassionate?

    • Acknowledge Multiple Forms of Suffering: Feminism should recognize the varied experiences of suffering and responsibility faced by both women and men, especially from marginalized communities. Eg: Recognizing that men, particularly in low-income families, endure public humiliation due to financial pressures, while women often carry unpaid domestic responsibilities.
    • Avoid Oversimplifying Complex Dynamics: Instead of reducing all issues to power struggles, feminist discourse should appreciate the complexity of human relationships, where love, care, and duty often coexist with structural inequality. Eg: A couple might have disagreements over housework, but these can be opportunities for negotiation rather than a sign of patriarchal oppression.
    • Promote Solidarity, Not Antagonism: Feminist discourse should focus on creating solidarity, especially by addressing the emotional and economic pressures that shape men’s lives, inviting them to participate in gender equity efforts. Eg: Instead of criticizing men for their limitations, feminist discourse can encourage mutual understanding and support for gender equality.
    • Recognize the Interconnection of Personal and Political: Feminism should find a balance between the structural and the interpersonal, understanding that both need attention without conflating them. Eg: In rural areas, a woman may face different challenges from a financially independent urban woman, and addressing these separately helps focus on their unique struggles.

    Which aspects of current feminist narratives risk alienating both men and women, especially from marginalised backgrounds?

    • Oversimplification of Gender Struggles: Current feminist narratives often reduce complex interpersonal relationships to mere power struggles, ignoring the nuanced and varied experiences of individuals. This can alienate those who may not fit neatly into these narratives, particularly men from marginalized backgrounds who feel misunderstood. Eg: Depicting all men as perpetrators of patriarchy can alienate men who are struggling with their own economic and social pressures, leading to defensiveness rather than solidarity.
    • Blurring of Inequities: By merging vastly different forms of inequality, such as the struggles of financially independent urban women with those of rural women fearing violence, feminist discourse risks obscuring the real, context-specific challenges faced by each group. This can alienate individuals who feel their unique struggles are being overlooked. Eg: An urban woman’s struggles with household responsibilities may be portrayed in the same light as a rural woman’s safety concerns, which can cause friction and hinder support for both groups.
    • Antagonistic Tone Towards Men: A feminist narrative that is too focused on antagonism between the sexes, without acknowledging the emotional and economic pressures men face, can alienate men and prevent productive dialogue. This risks creating an “us versus them” mentality, undermining the potential for cross-gender solidarity. Eg: Men in low-income families, facing public humiliation due to financial hardship, may feel blamed for perpetuating patriarchal structures, even when they are also victims of societal pressures. This makes it harder for them to support feminist goals.

    What has steps taken by Indian Government? 

    • Legislative Reforms for Women’s Safety and Empowerment: The government has enacted laws to improve women’s safety and protect their rights. Eg: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005) was enacted to provide legal protection to women facing violence within the home. Additionally, the Criminal Law (Amendment) Act (2013) expanded the definition of sexual offenses and introduced stricter punishments for crimes like rape and acid attacks, in response to the Nirbhaya case.
    • Schemes for Economic Empowerment: The government has introduced various schemes aimed at economically empowering women, especially in rural and marginalized communities. Eg: The Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (2016) provides free LPG connections to women from below-poverty-line families, reducing their dependency on traditional cooking methods that often expose them to health hazards. Similarly, schemes like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao focus on improving education and access to opportunities for girls.
    • Reservation and Affirmative Action in Education and Employment: The government has implemented affirmative action measures to enhance women’s participation in education and employment. Eg: The Reservation for Women in Local Governance mandates one-third of seats in Panchayats (local governing bodies) be reserved for women, encouraging their participation in political processes and decision-making. Furthermore, policies like the Maternity Benefit Act (2017) aim to protect women’s rights in the workplace by providing paid maternity leave.

    Way forward: 

    • Promote Intersectional Feminism: The government and society should adopt an intersectional approach to feminism, addressing the unique challenges faced by women from diverse backgrounds, including rural, urban, and marginalized communities. Eg: Tailoring policies like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao to address region-specific challenges, such as safety concerns in rural areas and educational disparities in urban areas, can create more inclusive support for all women.
    • Engage Men in Gender Equality Efforts: Foster dialogue and understanding by engaging men in discussions around gender equality, recognizing their societal pressures, and encouraging shared responsibility in family and community roles. Eg: Programs like #HeForShe can be expanded to include more men, emphasizing their role in supporting gender equity at home and in the workplace, helping to bridge the gap between feminist discourse and broader societal change.