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  • Despite Consistent experience of High growth, India still goes with the lowest indicators of human development. Examine the issues that make balanced and inclusive development elusive.

    India is Fastest Growing Economy in the world (IMF) but low HDI rank (130 out of 193, UNDP 2025) highlight that growth has not translated into inclusive development.

    Indicators of human development

    Poverty Headcount Ratio – 11.28% (2022-23)

    Malnutrition – NFHS-5

    35.5% stunting,

    19.3% wasting,

    32.1% underweight in children under five

    Inequality – the richest 1% owning over 40% of the nation’s wealth, while the bottom 50% hold a mere 3-6%.

    Issues that make balanced and inclusive development elusive.

    Political Factors

    Policy Fragmentation: scheme overlaps and lack of convergence dilute impact.

    Short-Term Populism: Focus on vote-bank subsidies over long-term human capital investments. Eg- low spending on Health (1.98% of GDP) and Education (2.9% of GDP)

    Weak Decentralization: Eg- Only 40% of States have functional District Planning Committees.

    Economic Factors

    Jobless Growth: Services contribute 55% of GDP but employ less than 30% of workforce.

    Agrarian Distress: 42% of workforce in agriculture contributes just 17% to GDP

    Social Factors

    Gender Inequality: low Female Labour Force Participation due to

    Triple Burden – Household, Children, Job

    Patriarchal Mindset – Eg- Sarpanch Pati

    Law of asset ownership – only 11% land ownership

    Education and Health Deficits

    High out of pocket expenditure (40%)

    Digital Apartheid in education during Covid

    Environmental Stress: Unsustainable urbanization, pollution, and water scarcity aggravate human deprivation.

    Institutional Factors

    Weak Governance Capacity: Poor implementation, leakages, and bureaucratic delays persist. Eg- inclusion-exclusion errors in PDS

    Ineffective Targeting: Outdated socio-economic data hinder evidence-based policy (SECC 2011 still in use).

    Way Forward

    Capability Approach – increase spending on Health (2.5%of GDP) and Education (6% of GDP)

    Adopt Best Practices

    Kerala’s People’s Plan Campaign

    Participatory Budgeting in porto alegre brazil

    Decentralized Governance based on principle of subsidiarity.

    “Growth becomes meaningful only when it expands human freedom and capability.” – Amartya Sen

  • What can France learn from the Indian Constitution’s approach to secularism?

    Secularism ensures the neutrality of the State toward religion while protecting freedom of belief and conscience.

    While France follows Laïcité, emphasizing strict separation of religion and State, India practices positive secularism, ensuring equal respect for all religions within a plural society.

    France’s Model of Secularism (Laïcité)

    Based on non-recognition and non-involvement of the State in religious affairs.

    Guarantees freedom of conscience but restricts public religious expression (e.g., veil ban in schools, 2004).

    Aims to preserve republican unity and neutrality in the public sphere.

    India’s Model of Secularism

    Enshrined in the Preamble and Articles 25-28 of the Constitution.

    Guarantees freedom of religion, equal treatment of all faiths, and State neutrality.

    Allows State intervention for social reform (e.g., abolition of untouchability, Sabarimala judgment).

    Described as positive secularism – promoting harmony through engagement, not exclusion.

    Upheld as a basic feature of the Constitution in S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994).

    Lessons France Can Learn from Indian Secularism

    Inclusive Neutrality: The State can respect all religions equally rather than excluding them from the public sphere.

    Reform-Oriented State Role: The State can intervene in religious practices to uphold human rights and gender equality (e.g., abolition of untouchability, temple entry)

    Multiculturalism – respecting cultural and religious rights and customs. Promoting plurality instead of uniformity

    Freedom of Religious Expression: Allowing individuals to express faith in public spaces strengthens personal liberty (e.g., Sikh turban, Muslim veil).

    Pluralism as Democratic Strength: Religious diversity, when accommodated constitutionally, enhances national unity and democratic legitimacy.

    Balancing Liberty with Equality: Secularism should protect individual conscience while also advancing social justice and non-discrimination.

    Dialogue over Restriction: Promoting inter-faith dialogue and accommodation builds social cohesion better than prohibitive policies.

    Protection of minority rights through special provisions. Eg- Article 29,30.

    Secularism need not mean “absence of religion in public life,” but rather “equal respect and peaceful coexistence of all religions under a neutral State.”

  • From the resolution of contentious issues regarding distribution of legislative powers by the courts, ‘Principle of Federal Supremacy’ and ‘Harmonious Construction’ have emerged. Explain.

    As per Ivor Jennings, India is “a federation with a strong centralising tendency.” The 7th Schedule is a reflection of this tendency.

    Contentious Issues regarding Distribution of Legislative Powers

    Concurrent List repugnancy – Eg- Education (Concurrent List, Entry 25) – Centre’s NEET law vs Tamil Nadu’s opposition to it.

    Residuary powers with the Union

    Under Article 249, Rajya Sabha can empower Parliament to legislate on State List subjects. Eg- Essential Commodities Act (food items, agricultural produce).

    During National Emergency (Art. 250) or President’s Rule (Art. 356), Parliament can legislate on State subjects.

    Principle of Federal Supremacy

    In cases of irreconcilable conflict, Union law prevails over State law.

    Judicial Validation–

    Union of India v. H.S. Dhillon (1972) – Parliament has residuary powers.

    State of Karnataka v. Union of India (1977) – Union’s primacy in matters of national importance.

    State of West Bengal v. Union of India (1963) – SC upheld Parliament’s power to acquire State property.

    Zameer Ahmed Latifur Rehman Sheikh v. State of Maharashtra (2010) – SC ruled that a central money laundering law overrides conflicting State law under Article 254(1).

    Protects national unity and uniformity in crucial subjects.

    Principle of Harmonious Construction

    Courts attempt to reconcile conflicts so that both Union and State laws can function simultaneously.

    Judicial Validation–

    In C.B. Boarding and Lodging v. State of Mysore (1970), the SC upheld the State’s power to levy tax on lodging houses, even though taxation on income was a Union subject.

    State of Rajasthan v. G. Chawla (1959) – Both Centre and State laws upheld through harmonious interpretation.

    Hoechst Pharmaceuticals v. State of Bihar (1983) – Repugnancy avoided through reconciliation.

    Preserves federal balance and safeguards state autonomy.

    “Federalism is not a monolith; it is a dialogue between self-rule and shared rule.” Both Union & States are creatures of the Constitution

  • What are the methods used by the Farmers organizations to influence the policy- makers in India and how effective are these methods?

    Farmers’ organisations are collective associations that represent the interests of cultivators, agricultural laborers, and rural producers and seek to influence agricultural policy and secure fair prices. Eg- Bharatiya Kisan Union (BKU)

    Methods Used by Farmers’ Organisations to Influence Policymakers

    Protest and Agitation – Organize rallies, dharnas, sit-ins, and tractor marches etc. Eg- 2020-21 Farm Laws Protest.

    Lobbying and Negotiation – Engage directly with ministries, parliamentary committees, and NITI Aayog to submit memoranda, draft proposals, and policy recommendations.

    Electoral and Political Pressure

    Mobilize vote banks in rural constituencies and influence party manifestos.

    Forming political parties to contest elections. Eg- Shetkari Sanghatana in Maharashtra

    Use mass media, social media, and civil society networks to build public opinion. Eg- #NoFarmersNoFood campaigns on X.

    Coalition and Network Building – Create alliances with trade unions, civil society groups, and opposition parties. Eg- All India Kisan Sangharsh Coordination Committee (AIKSCC) unites over 200 farmer unions.

    Legal and Institutional Interventions – Eg- Farmer bodies filed PILs against land acquisition and farm laws.

    Effectiveness of Methods Used by Farmers’ Organisations

    Positive Outcomes

    Policy Reversals through sustained pressure. Eg- Repeal of the Three Farm Laws (2021) after year-long protests.

    Enhanced Political Awareness – Eg- Farmers’ mobilisation in western Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.

    Short-Term Economic Gains – Secured loan waivers, input subsidies, and MSP hikes.

    Brought rural issues to national discourse via social media.

    Greater Institutional Inclusion – Eg- Farmer representatives included in Committee on MSP (2022) for reform proposals.

    Strengthened Democratic Participation

    Limitations

    Fragmentation – divisions based on region, caste, and crop pattern. Eg- dominance of North Indian Farmers in Farm Laws protest

    Many farmer groups are linked with political parties, reducing credibility as neutral stakeholders.

    Role is majorly protective, limiting structural reforms. Eg- opposition to GM crops

    Weak Policy Research and Data-Based Advocacy

    Use of violent means – Eg- red fort incident during farm protests

    Marginalization of small and women farmers in representation

    Farmer movements represent the democratic heartbeat of rural India. They must move from protest-based mobilization to knowledge-based engagement with the state.

  • “The Central Administration Tribunal which was established for redressal of grievances and complaints by or against central government employees, nowadays is exercising its powers as an independent judicial authority.” Explain.

    The CAT was established under Article 323A and Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985 to provide speedy and specialized justice in service matters of Central Government employees.

    Objectives of the Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT)

    Speedy Justice

    Reduce Burden on Courts

    Specialized Adjudication

    Ensure Administrative Fairness – Protect employees from arbitrary, unjust, or discriminatory administrative actions.

    Accessible and Affordable Justice

    Maintain consistency and coherence in decisions across departments.

    Promote Administrative Accountability

    Realize Article 39A by making justice accessible to all employees.

    CAT as Independent Judicial Authority

    Exclusive Jurisdiction-

    CAT adjudicates disputes on recruitment, promotion, transfer, service conditions, and disciplinary actions of Central employees.

    Its jurisdiction excludes ordinary civil courts in service matters.

    Powers of a Civil Court, including summoning witnesses, receiving evidence, and delivering binding orders.

    Though under the DoPT for administrative purposes, CAT functions judicially independent in decision-making.

    Judicial Review Authority- CAT can strike down administrative actions violating Articles 14, 16, or 21. Eg- It has quashed arbitrary transfer orders and disciplinary actions in several cases.

    Following L. Chandra Kumar v. Union of India (1997), CAT decisions are subject to judicial review by High Courts under Articles 226/227, ensuring accountability.

    CAT, in line with Article 39A, must ensure administrative justice while upholding judicial independence and judicial review as constitutional safeguards.

  • Do you think that constitution of India does not accept principle of strict separation of powers rather it is based on the principle of ‘checks and balance’? Explain.

    SoP is derived from Montesquieu’s Spirit of Laws (1748) – dividing state power into Legislature, Executive, Judiciary to prevent concentration and arbitrariness.

    Separation of Powers in the Constitution

    Article 50 – Separation of executive and judiciary (Directive Principle).

    Articles 122 & 212 – Courts not to question proceedings of Parliament and State Legislatures.

    Articles 121 & 211 – Conduct of judges cannot be discussed in Parliament or State Legislatures (except during impeachment).

    Article 361 – President and Governors enjoy immunity; not answerable to courts for exercise of powers and duties.

    However, Strict Separation Does Not Exist due to

    Legislature & Executive Overlap – Executive is drawn from the legislature (Art. 74 & 75; Art. 163 & 164).

    Delegated Legislation – Legislature delegates rule-making powers to executive authorities.

    Judicial Functions of Legislature in cases of breach of privilege or impeachment of judges.

    Judicial Functions of Executive – pardons and commutations (Art. 72 & 161) by President and Governors.

    Checks and Balances in Practice

    Judicial Review – Judiciary can strike down unconstitutional laws and executive actions. Eg – NJAC Judgment.

    Legislative Control over Executive via questions, motions, and no-confidence votes.

    Executive’s Role in appointment of judges through the collegium system consultation.

    Judiciary review of laws for conformity with Fundamental Rights and Basic Structure. Eg – Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975).

    Legislative control over judiciary – Eg- 2018 Amendments to Atrocities Act, Impeachment Motions

    “Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.” – Lord Acton
    Thus, checks and balances are essential to prevent tyranny and preserve democracy.

  • Examine the linkages between 19th centuries ‘Indian Renaissance’ and the emergence of national identity. (उन्नीसवीं शताब्दी के ‘भारतीय पुनर्जागरण’ और राष्ट्रीय पहचान के मध्य सहलग्नताओं का परिक्षण कीजिए | ) (10m,150 words)

  • “Empowering women is the key to control population growth”. Discuss (10m,150 words)

    “There is no tool for development more effective than the empowerment of women.” – Kofi Annan

    The 1994 Cairo International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), moved the focus of population policy away from “target-driven” approach to “rights-based” empowerment.

    Inverse Correlation of Education and TFR – According to NFHS-5 (2021-23), women with no schooling have a TFR of 2.8, while those with 12+ years of schooling have a TFR of 1.8.

    The “Kerala Model” shows that high female literacy leads to low Infant Mortality Rates (IMR), reducing the need for “extra” children as insurance.

    Economic Independence – Working women prioritise quality of life over large families.

    As women enter the formal workforce, the “Opportunity Cost” of child-rearing in terms of lost wages and career progression rises, leading to preference for smaller families.

    Delay in Age of Marriage shortens the biological fertility window. Eg- average age of marriage for women with professional degrees is 27 years.

    Greater Birth Spacing awareness among educated and employed women

    Digital literacy allows women to access family planning information and tele-health services privately, bypassing social taboos.

    Enhanced Reproductive Agency – Amartya Sen argues that “Women’s Agency” is more effective than any state-mandated policy, as it transforms women into active decision-makers.

    Breakdown of Traditional Gender Roles – Empowerment challenges the notion that a woman’s primary value is reproductive and also reduces Son Preference

    Global Precedence – Bangladesh’s success in dropping TFR from 6.7 in 1960 to 2.1 in 2017 was driven by micro-finance and female education.

    Increase in Political Participation of Women – Women leaders prioritise health, education, and family welfare.

    Challenges to this Approach

    Persistent “Son Meta-Preference”

    Prevalence of child marriage – 23.3% of women were married before age 18 years. (NFHS-5)

    Stigmatization of male sterilization. Eg- 37.9% of women undergoing sterilization compared to only 0.3% of men. (NFHS-5)

    Religious and Cultural Dogma – In certain conservative pockets, empowerment is viewed as an “attack on tradition,” leading to resistance against family planning.

    Lack of Old-Age Social Security for informal sector workers – children are seen as “economic assets” for old age

    Structural Barriers in Healthcare – Rural Health Statistics report shows a 75%% shortage of female gynecologists in Community Health Centers (CHCs).

    Dual Burden – women spend 300% more time on unpaid care work than men (Time Use Survey).

    Sustainable population control will emerge not from coercion, but from choice, dignity, and equality for women. This can be achieved through

    Promoting Male Engagement

    Universal old-age pension

    Entrepreneurship under Stand-up India

    Empowering ASHA workers

  • Many voices had strengthened and enriched the nationalist movement during the Gandhian phase. Elaborate. (गांधीवादी प्रावस्था के दौरान विभिन्न स्वरों ने रास्ट्रवादी आंदोलन को सुदृढ़ एवं समृद्ध बनाया था | विस्तारपूर्वक स्पष्ट कीजिए | ) (15m,250 words)

  • How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development of India? (दक्ष और किफायती (अफोर्डेबल) शहरी सार्वजनिक परिवहन किस प्रकार भारत के द्रुत आर्थिक विकास की कुंजी है ?) (15m,250 words)